Negotiation Between Countries

I want to do that from three different fronts, namely; Cultural differences in communication The patterns of communication between the countries are different even though tooth countries communicates basically in English language as an accepted language of communication. Communication in this sense can be verbal or non-verbal. Non- verbal also Includes written communications. Nigeria has over 400 languages but English language Is the accepted lingua franca. The united States has other native languages but English Is still the accepted language of communication.Though I will communicate in English with my American business partners but I must also understand that the way the Americans write and pronounce some words is different from the way we write and pronounce our words in English language. The American counterparts for instance will write the word â€Å"favor as favor† but I will write the word â€Å"favor as favor† because Nigeria was colonized by the British, so we take our language after the British pattern of writing and communicating.Nigerian are exclusion minded in communication; we will tend to see how the conversation does not align with what we already know and would usually want the American counterpart to align with our own position of knowledge. The American partner will rather communicate based on an Inclusive mindedness; they will rather want to know how what I am saying makes sense. American look for the sense In the conversation, does the numbers tally, are the figures correct, so they have a broader view to the conversation.Also Most Nigerian communication style follow after the collectivists' culture; (Grove & Hallowed; 1994) â€Å"Collectivists convey negative feedback indirectly via an intermediary or by quiet withdrawal of a perquisite. Sometimes they omit saying anything that's negative. If you are managing employees in (or from) a collectivist culture, you might not find out what's going wrong in your operation until the proverbial eleventh hour; there's deep reluctance to upset group harmony by ailing you the bad news†.This means we would rather not say â€Å"no† to you openly even though we disagree, but we will rather let the conversation go on peaceably until we have another time to object to most of the Initial points of our conversation. My American partner would rather tell It the way It Is If It doesn't go down with them. (Grove & Hallowed; 1994) They pattern after the Individualist culture In conversations. Generally speaking, American culture communication style are usually Comfort talks, they are emotionally objective and practical in approach, their interactions are usually very direct and open.They don't hide any cards off the table, they play all the cards on the table. But when it comes to reactions, they react to issues analytically and they remain persistent in their analysis until otherwise convinced. These are the factors that influences how Americans communicate. Cu ltural differences in negotiation and conflict-resolution Let's think of a scenario of negotiation with our U. S. Partner for a presentation from an IT company overseas. The American makes his presentation very apt and technically done by expressing his overwhelming objective points and reasons why the product is best for my company in Nigeria. Well, we would say â€Å"the presentation is brilliant but I still do not trust this guy. He thinks objectively while I think subjectively, so our negotiations can either stall or proceed based on how we handle this cultural differences between our cultures. (Mimicked, 2010) To most Americans, difference is a threat, they will naturally tend to overlook similarities and take note of the difference when they first begin the negotiations. We Nigerian are looking for similarity with what we already know and experience, similarity makes us comfortable in the negotiation.During negotiations with Americans, you must understand that they hate silen ce, and they would often interrupt you at intervals during negotiations, while that is rude in my country, to interrupt someone while he is still talking, the Americans have that as a normal way of life. Cultural differences in problem-solving and decision-making In terms of problem solving, the American approaches it from a highly objective point of view, they would naturally first carry out a critical analysis of the problem and then cake decisions based on the facts on ground.While we Nigerian usually make decisions based on sentiments sometimes, we decide to enter a business agreement when we feel intuitively inclined to do so, there is mostly no objective reason except we feel convinced inside that this is a good buy so we make the money decision. I would first seek an understanding of the cultural differences that have been highlighted earlier. After which I will approach the negotiation objectively, knowing that is how my American partner thinks.I will also approach most of o ur negotiation room an individualist point of view while also letting my American friend understand the collectivist point of view. My approach would be to achieve a win-win situation. In my country I can afford to have a win-lose situation during negotiations but I understand that the American is highly objective and would not go by my sweet talks or by my expressing an overwhelming emotional conviction about the business I am trying to sell to him. So my thought pattern will naturally change from when negotiating with my fellow country man.The factors of negotiation and business allegations to consider in this case would be; Listening skills- I will need to be more active in listening so that I get the objective point the American is making rather than rely on my emotions to guide my decision making in the negotiation. People skills – I need to feel comfortable with our differences and not look hard for similarities between us before I connect with the American counterpart. BATAAN – I must establish what the Best Alternative To Negotiated Agreement is. This is vital to my than what I may have done otherwise. The BATAAN is what I can or might do if an agreement cannot be reached.This is my final position in case an agreement is difficult to reach. Have a Plan – I would consider having a plan ahead of the negotiation. My plan would likely include the following: (Yachted, D; ND) Trying to establish the negotiating style of the other party. This helps me think through how best to communicate and go through the process of negotiation and making educated guesses as I go along. What are my interests? This is gives me a perfect reason to answer the question of why? Before the negotiation. What is my real interest? What are the interests of the American Partner?I must understand where y American partner is coming from what are the shared interests we have and what are the opposing interests. Opposing interests is what I must negotiate. What do I have that I can trade that is of lesser value to me and of higher value to the American Partner? This helps me consider the options in the give and take phase of the negotiation. I must know beforehand what I can trade off at any time during the negotiation that is of a lesser value to me and of a higher value to my partner. What are three options I can implement to move the negotiation from compromising to joint problem solving?

Physical Education Essay

Physical education trends have developed recently[when? ] to incorporate a greater variety of activities besides typical sports. Introducing students to activities like bowling, walking/hiking, or Frisbee at an early age can help students develop good activity habits that will carry over into adulthood. Some teachers have even begun to incorporate stress-reduction techniques such as yoga, deep-breathing and tai chi. Tai chi, an ancient martial arts form focused on slow meditative movements is a relaxation activity with many benefits for students. see more:history of physical education in the philippines Studies have shown that tai chi enhances muscular strength and endurance, cardiovascular endurance, and provides many other physical benefits. It also provides psychological benefits such as improving general mental health, concentration, awareness and positive mood. It can be taught to any age student with little or no equipment making it ideal for mixed ability and age classes. Tai chi can easily be incorporated into a holistic learning body and mind unit. [2] Teaching non-traditional sports to students may also provide the necessary motivation for students to increase their activity, and can help students learn about different cultures. For example, while teaching a unit about lacrosse (in, say, Arizona, USA), students can also learn a little bit about the Native American cultures of the Northeast and Eastern Canada, where lacrosse originated. Teaching non-traditional (or non-native) sports provides a great opportunity to integrate academic concepts from other subjects as well (social studies from the example above), which may now be required of many P. E. teachers. The four aspects of P. E. are physical, mental, social, and emotional. [citation needed] Another trend is the incorporation of health and nutrition to the physical education curriculum. The Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004 required that all school districts with a federally funded school meal program develop wellness policies that address nutrition and physical activity. [3] While teaching students sports and movement skills, P. E. teachers are now incorporating short health and nutrition lessons into the curriculum. This is more prevalent at the elementary school level, where students do not have a specific Health class. Recently most elementary schools have specific health classes for students as well as physical education class. With the recent outbreaks of diseases such as swine flu, school districts are making it mandatory for students to learn about practicing good hygiene along with other health topics. Today many states require Physical Education teachers to be certified to teach Health courses. Many colleges and Universities offer both Physical Education and Health as one certification. This push towards health education is beginning in the intermediate level, including lessons on bullying, self-esteem and stress and anger management. Research has shown that there is a positive corrolation between brain development and exercising. [4] Incorporating local indigenous knowledge into physical education can lead to many meaningful experiences and a way of learning about other cultures. For example by incorporating traditional knowledge from varying indigenous groups from across Canada students can be exposed to a many concepts such as holistic learning and the medicine wheel. A unit could be focused on connecting to a place or feeling while outdoors, participating in traditional games, or outdoor environmental education. These types of lesson can easily be integrated into other parts of the curriculum and give Aboriginal students a chance to incorporate their culture in the local school community [5] Studies have been done in how physical education can help improve academic achievement. In a 2007 article, researchers found a profound gain in student’s English Arts standardized testing students who had 56 hours of physical education in a year compared to like students who had 28 hours of physical education a year. [6] In Brazil, the physical education curriculum is designed to allow school pupils a full range of modern opportunities, dozens of sports and hundreds of carefully reviewed drills and exercises, including exposure to education with the use of pedometer, GPS, and heart rate monitors, as well as state-of-the-art exercise machines in the upper grades. Some martial arts classes, like wrestling in the United States, and Pencak Silat in France, Indonesia, and Malaysia, are taught to teach children self-defense and to feel good about themselves. The physical education curriculum is designed to allow students to experience at least a minimum exposure to the following categories of activities: aquatics, conditioning activities, gymnastics, individual/dual sports, team sports, rhythms, and dance. Students are encouraged to continue to explore those activities in which they have a primary interest by effectively managing their community resources. In these areas, a planned sequence of learning experiences is designed to support a progression of student development. This allows kids through 6th grade to be introduced to sports, fitness, and teamwork in order to be better prepared for the middle and high school age. In 1975, the United States House of Representatives voted to require school physical education classes include both genders. [7] Some high school and some middle school PE classes are single-sex. Requiring individuals to participate in physical education activities, such as dodge ball, flag football, and other competitive sports remains a controversial subject because of the social impact these have cases physical education programs have been cut. Technology use in physical education New technology in Physical education is playing a big role in classes. One of the most affordable and effective is a simple video recorder. With the use of a video recorder students can see the mistakes they’re making in things such as a throwing motion or swinging form. [8] Studies show that students find this more effective than having someone try to explain what they are doing wrong, and then trying to correct it. [9] Educators also found the use of other technologies such as pedometers and heart rate monitors very successful, using them to make step and heart rate goals for students. [10] Other technologies that can be used in a Physical Education setting would include video projectors, GPS and even gaming systems such as Kinect, Wii Fit and Dance Dance Revolution. Projectors can be used to show students things such as proper form or how to play certain games. GPS systems can be used to get students active in an outdoor setting and active exergames can be used by teachers to show students a good way to stay fit in and out of the classroom setting[11] Another type of technology that is commonly used in Physical Education is the use of pedometers. Pedemeters do not necessarily track how far a person is going, but it lets them know the number of steps they are making. It will let them know how many steps on average they are making and want to strive to get more the next class. [1] There are many lessons that you can use for many grade levels when you are teaching students to use a pedometer it is important to make it a game, especially for younger students. [2] Worldwide In Australia, physical education was first made a compulsory part of the curriculum in Victorian Government primary and secondary schools in 1981. The policy was outlined in a Ministerial Statement to the Victorian Legisaltive Assembly by the Minister for Educational Services, the Honourable Norman Lacy MP on 17th September. [3] In South Korea, it is mandatory for pupils to take 3 hours of PE through primary and secondary schools. [citation needed] In Portugal, pupils from primary school could optionally join PE as an extra-curricular activity. From middle school to secondary school, pupils must participate in PE classes 2 hours per week. [citation needed] In Singapore, pupils from primary school through junior colleges are required to have 2 hours of PE every week, except during examination seasons. Pupils are able to play games like football, badminton, captain’s ball, and basketball during most sessions. Unorthodox sports such as touchball, fencing, and skateboarding are occasionally played. In more prestigious secondary schools and in junior colleges, sports such as golf, tennis, shooting, and squash are played. A compulsory fitness exam, NAPFA, is conducted in every school once every year to assess the physical fitness of the pupils. [citation needed] Pupils are given a series of fitness tests (Pull-ups/Inclined pull-ups for girls, standing broad jump, sit-ups, sit-and-reach and 1. 6 km for primary [10-12 year-olds]/2. 4 km for secondary and junior college levels [13-18 year-olds]). Students are graded by gold, silver, bronze or fail. NAPFA for pre-enlistees serves as an indicator for an additional 2 months in the country’s compulsory national service if they attain bronze or fail. In British Columbia, Canada the government has stated in the grade one curriculum that students must participate in physical activity daily five times a week. Also the teacher is responsible for planning Daily Physical Activity (DPA) which is thirty minutes of mild to moderate physical activity a day not including curriculum physical education classes. The curriculum also requires students in grade one to be knowledgeable about healthy living. For example students must be able to describe befits of regular exercise, identify healthy choices that require them to be more physically active, and describe importance of choosing healthy food. [12] In Malaysia, pupils from primary schools to secondary schools are expected to do 2 periods or 1 hour of PE throughout the year except a week before examination. In most secondary schools, games like badminton, sepak takraw, football, basketball and tennis are available. Pupils are allowed to bring their own sports equipment to the school with the authorization of the teacher. In most secondary schools, physical exams are rarely done, but schools record pupils’ height, weight and number of push-ups they can do. [citation needed] In Scotland, pupils are expected to do at least two periods of PE in first, second, third and fourth year. In fifth and sixth year, PE is voluntary. [citation needed] In Ireland, P. E. is mandatory for all years. Unless, the school gives the option for a student to do the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme instead for fifth and sixth year. Indonesian high school students are playing traditional game â€Å"Benteng† In Indonesia, students ranging from Kindergarten to High School have PE integrated with their curriculum. Kindergarten until Grade 3 of Elementary students have gymnastics, starting from Grade 4 of Elementary School, students will be introduced into traditional martial arts Pencak Silat and some team games such as badminton, tennis, soccer, futsal, rounders, basketball, etc. Starting from Junior High School, Both gender are separated during PE class. PE find its place in extracurricular forms, where students can specialize themself in one kind of sports they choose. Sport Festival can be held during vacuum period, usually after examination. At this time students can compete each other by bringing own class’ flag. Some universities such as ITB include PE in curriculum for freshmen Some countries include Martial Arts training in school as part of Physical Education class. These Filipino children are doing karate. In the Philippines, some schools have integrated martial arts training into their Physical Education curriculum. [13][14][15][16][17] In England, pupils are expected to do two hours of PE a week in Year 7, 8 and 9 and at least 1 in year 10 and 11. [18] In Wales, pupils are expected to do only one hour of PE per fortnight. [19] In Poland, pupils are expected to do at least three hours of PE a week during primary and secondary education. [20] Universities must also organise at least 60 hours of physical education classes at undergraduate courses. [21] In India, Physical Education is an important subject in schools. Many students chose Physical Education as a subject against Language Subject Like English, French, some time official language Hindi and some time local languages like Punjabi, because it is a very scoring subject and very interesting. [clarification needed] Assignments on Physical education increase the interest in Sports Educational Bodies in India like Central Board of Secondary Education and Punjab School Education Board are in those which conduct examination on Physical Education in affiliated schools and colleges. [citation needed] Many people see Physical Education as Physical Activity or Game. Physical Activity or Game is only a subset of the entire Physical Education Curriculum, however, physical activity or Game is the key foundation of a  successful PE program. In today’s high tech society, a successful Physical Education (PE) plays an important role in the physical growth and development of students in fighting against the sedentary lifestyle brought towards us through the convenience of new technology and devices. Through PE, students acquire the knowledge, skills, right attitudes and values towards the pursuit of a lifelong physically active and healthy lifestyle. It also provides an avenue for students to express themselves through movement and physical activity. The PE programme in Bina Bangsa school is design to allow the younger ones to enjoy physical activity in the first 2 years and as they grow in maturity, other components will be slowly added. The Bina Bangsa PE Programme is designed such that all students are given the opportunity to participate in a variety of physical activities such as sports and games and acquire the concepts and skills that will enable them to participate in these sports and games both for leisure and competition. In addition, PE provides a natural platform and valuable opportunities to develop self-management skills, social and co-operative skills, and build character. It serves to complement other educational areas in promoting the desired outcomes of education. In particular, PE helps to cultivate healthy habits, teamwork, resilience, high self-esteem and resolve. Physical education trends have developed recently[when? ] to incorporate a greater variety of activities besides typical sports. Introducing students to activities like bowling, walking/hiking, or Frisbee at an early age can help students develop good activity habits that will carry over into adulthood. Some teachers have even begun to incorporate stress-reduction techniques such as yoga, deep-breathing and tai chi. Tai chi, an ancient martial arts form focused on slow meditative movements is a relaxation activity with many benefits for students. Studies have shown that tai chi enhances muscular strength and endurance, cardiovascular endurance, and provides many other physical benefits. It also provides psychological benefits such as improving general mental health, concentration, awareness and positive mood. It can be taught to any age student with little or no equipment making it ideal for mixed ability and age classes. Tai chi can easily be incorporated into a holistic learning body and mind unit. [2] Teaching non-traditional sports to students may also provide the necessary motivation for students to increase their activity, and can help students learn about different cultures. For example, while teaching a unit about lacrosse (in, say, Arizona, USA), students can also learn a little bit about the Native American cultures of the Northeast and Eastern Canada, where lacrosse originated. Teaching non-traditional (or non-native) sports provides a great opportunity to integrate academic concepts from other subjects as well (social studies from the example above), which may now be required of many P. E. teachers. The four aspects of P. E. are physical, mental, social, and emotional. [citation needed] Another trend is the incorporation of health and nutrition to the physical education curriculum. The Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act of 2004 required that all school districts with a federally funded school meal program develop wellness policies that address nutrition and physical activity. [3] While teaching students sports and movement skills, P. E. teachers are now incorporating short health and nutrition lessons into the curriculum. This is more prevalent at the elementary school level, where students do not have a specific Health class. Recently most elementary schools have specific health classes for students as well as physical education class. With the recent outbreaks of diseases such as swine flu, school districts are making it mandatory for students to learn about practicing good hygiene along with other health topics. Today many states require Physical Education teachers to be certified to teach Health courses. Many colleges and Universities offer both Physical Education and Health as one certification. This push towards health education is beginning in the intermediate level, including lessons on bullying, self-esteem and stress and anger management. Research has shown that there is a positive corrolation between brain development and exercising. [4] Incorporating local indigenous knowledge into physical education can lead to many meaningful experiences and a way of learning about other cultures. For example by incorporating traditional knowledge from varying indigenous groups from across Canada students can be exposed to a many concepts such as holistic learning and the medicine wheel. A unit could be focused on connecting to a place or feeling while outdoors, participating in traditional games, or outdoor environmental education. These types of lesson can easily be integrated into other parts of the curriculum and give Aboriginal students a chance to incorporate their culture in the local school community [5] Studies have been done in how physical education can help improve academic achievement. In a 2007 article, researchers found a profound gain in student’s English Arts standardized testing students who had 56 hours of physical education in a year compared to like students who had 28 hours of physical education a year. [6] In Brazil, the physical education curriculum is designed to allow school pupils a full range of modern opportunities, dozens of sports and hundreds of carefully reviewed drills and exercises, including exposure to education with the use of pedometer, GPS, and heart rate monitors, as well as state-of-the-art exercise machines in the upper grades. Some martial arts classes, like wrestling in the United States, and Pencak Silat in France, Indonesia, and Malaysia, are taught to teach children self-defense and to feel good about themselves. The physical education curriculum is designed to allow students to experience at least a minimum exposure to the following categories of activities: aquatics, conditioning activities, gymnastics, individual/dual sports, team sports, rhythms, and dance. Students are encouraged to continue to explore those activities in which they have a primary interest by effectively managing their community resources. In these areas, a planned sequence of learning experiences is designed to support a progression of student development. This allows kids through 6th grade to be introduced to sports, fitness, and teamwork in order to be better prepared for the middle and high school age. In 1975, the United States House of Representatives voted to require school physical education classes include both genders. [7] Some high school and some middle school PE classes are single-sex. Requiring individuals to participate in physical education activities, such as dodge ball, flag football, and other competitive sports remains a controversial subject because of the social impact these have cases physical education programs have been cut. Technology use in physical education New technology in Physical education is playing a big role in classes. One of the most affordable and effective is a simple video recorder. With the use of a video recorder students can see the mistakes they’re making in things such as a throwing motion or swinging form. [8] Studies show that students find this more effective than having someone try to explain what they are doing wrong, and then trying to correct it. [9] Educators also found the use of other technologies such as pedometers and heart rate monitors very successful, using them to make step and heart rate goals for students. [10] Other technologies that can be used in a Physical Education setting would include video projectors, GPS and even gaming systems such as Kinect, Wii Fit and Dance Dance Revolution. Projectors can be used to show students things such as proper form or how to play certain games. GPS systems can be used to get students active in an outdoor setting and active exergames can be used by teachers to show students a good way to stay fit in and out of the classroom setting[11] Another type of technology that is commonly used in Physical Education is the use of pedometers. Pedemeters do not necessarily track how far a person is going, but it lets them know the number of steps they are making. It will let them know how many steps on average they are making and want to strive to get more the next class. [1] There are many lessons that you can use for many grade levels when you are teaching students to use a pedometer it is important to make it a game, especially for younger students. [2] Worldwide In Australia, physical education was first made a compulsory part of the curriculum in Victorian Government primary and secondary schools in 1981. The policy was outlined in a Ministerial Statement to the Victorian Legisaltive Assembly by the Minister for Educational Services, the Honourable Norman Lacy MP on 17th September. [3] In South Korea, it is mandatory for pupils to take 3 hours of PE through primary and secondary schools. [citation needed] In Portugal, pupils from primary school could optionally join PE as an extra-curricular activity. From middle school to secondary school, pupils must participate in PE classes 2 hours per week. [citation needed] In Singapore, pupils from primary school through junior colleges are required to have 2 hours of PE every week, except during examination seasons. Pupils are able to play games like football, badminton, captain’s ball, and basketball during most sessions. Unorthodox sports such as touchball, fencing, and skateboarding are occasionally played. In more prestigious secondary schools and in junior colleges, sports such as golf, tennis, shooting, and squash are played. A compulsory fitness exam, NAPFA, is conducted in every school once every year to assess the physical fitness of the pupils. [citation needed] Pupils are given a series of fitness tests (Pull-ups/Inclined pull-ups for girls, standing broad jump, sit-ups, sit-and-reach and 1. 6 km for primary [10-12 year-olds]/2. 4 km for secondary and junior college levels [13-18 year-olds]). Students are graded by gold, silver, bronze or fail. NAPFA for pre-enlistees serves as an indicator for an additional 2 months in the country’s compulsory national service if they attain bronze or fail. In British Columbia, Canada the government has stated in the grade one curriculum that students must participate in physical activity daily five times a week. Also the teacher is responsible for planning Daily Physical Activity (DPA) which is thirty minutes of mild to moderate physical activity a day not including curriculum physical education classes. The curriculum also requires students in grade one to be knowledgeable about healthy living. For example students must be able to describe befits of regular exercise, identify healthy choices that require them to be more physically active, and describe importance of choosing healthy food. [12] In Malaysia, pupils from primary schools to secondary schools are expected to do 2 periods or 1 hour of PE throughout the year except a week before examination. In most secondary schools, games like badminton, sepak takraw, football, basketball and tennis are available. Pupils are allowed to bring their own sports equipment to the school with the authorization of the teacher. In most secondary schools, physical exams are rarely done, but schools record pupils’ height, weight and number of push-ups they can do. [citation needed] In Scotland, pupils are expected to do at least two periods of PE in first, second, third and fourth year. In fifth and sixth year, PE is voluntary. [citation needed] In Ireland, P. E. is mandatory for all years. Unless, the school gives the option for a student to do the Leaving Certificate Vocational Programme instead for fifth and sixth year. Indonesian high school students are playing traditional game â€Å"Benteng† In Indonesia, students ranging from Kindergarten to High School have PE integrated with their curriculum. Kindergarten until Grade 3 of Elementary students have gymnastics, starting from Grade 4 of Elementary School, students will be introduced into traditional martial arts Pencak Silat and some team games such as badminton, tennis, soccer, futsal, rounders, basketball, etc. Starting from Junior High School, Both gender are separated during PE class. PE find its place in extracurricular forms, where students can specialize themself in one kind of sports they choose. Sport Festival can be held during vacuum period, usually after examination. At this time students can compete each other by bringing own class’ flag. Some universities such as ITB include PE in curriculum for freshmen Some countries include Martial Arts training in school as part of Physical Education class. These Filipino children are doing karate. In the Philippines, some schools have integrated martial arts training into their Physical Education curriculum. [13][14][15][16][17] In England, pupils are expected to do two hours of PE a week in Year 7, 8 and 9 and at least 1 in year 10 and 11. [18] In Wales, pupils are expected to do only one hour of PE per fortnight. [19] In Poland, pupils are expected to do at least three hours of PE a week during primary and secondary education. [20] Universities must also organise at least 60 hours of physical education classes at undergraduate courses. [21] In India, Physical Education is an important subject in schools. Many students chose Physical Education as a subject against Language Subject Like English, French, some time official language Hindi and some time local languages like Punjabi, because it is a very scoring subject and very interesting. [clarification needed] Assignments on Physical education increase the interest in Sports Educational Bodies in India like Central Board of Secondary Education and Punjab School Education Board are in those which conduct examination on Physical Education in affiliated schools and colleges. [citation needed] Many people see Physical Education as Physical Activity or Game. Physical Activity or Game is only a subset of the entire Physical Education Curriculum, however, physical activity or Game is the key foundation of a successful PE program. In today’s high tech society, a successful Physical Education (PE) plays an important role in the physical growth and development of students in fighting against the sedentary lifestyle brought towards us through the convenience of new technology and devices. Through PE, students acquire the knowledge, skills, right attitudes and values towards the pursuit of a lifelong physically active and healthy lifestyle. It also provides an avenue for students to express themselves through movement and physical activity. The PE programme in Bina Bangsa school is design to allow the younger ones to enjoy physical activity in the first 2 years and as they grow in maturity, other components will be slowly added. The Bina Bangsa PE Programme is designed such that all students are given the opportunity to participate in a variety of physical activities such as sports and games and acquire the concepts and skills that will enable them to participate in these sports and games both for leisure and competition. In addition, PE provides a natural platform and valuable opportunities to develop self-management skills, social and co-operative skills, and build character. It serves to complement other educational areas in promoting the desired outcomes of education. In particular, PE helps to cultivate healthy habits, teamwork, resilience, high self-esteem and resolve.

Building Community in Organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Building Community in Organizations - Essay Example The essay "Building Community in Organizations" talks about the approaches to organizational design such as the functional approach, divisional approach, network approach, team approach and the matrix approach. Organizational design is a guided and formal procedure for integrating individuals, information, and technology of a company. The divisional approach is where managers in large firms organize for specialized departments to be formed because they always have difficulties monitoring all the company activities and products. The departments formed are split according to their outputs in the organization. They include departments for distinguishing among production, geographical categories, and customer service. With these, managers can focus their resources and outcomes, and easily monitor performance. The Matrix approach combines functional specifications with the aim of achieving a divisional structure. It uses lasting cross-functional groups to incorporate functional experts with a divisional objective. Employees here associate themselves with at least two formal teams at the same time. The functional approach may be more applicable to human service organizations because it enhances good communication and responsibility affiliations that are essential in human services. It also makes employees feel comfortable while at the same time simplifying their training. This is a good approach when dealing with people in an organization because they will feel recognized and thus motivated.

Course Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Course - Essay Example Most often, behaviour, poor performance, and violations of the company’s policies warrant company’s discipline. Dealing with this matter is very important on the part of the company in the development in the attitude in the workforce and also for the advantage of the company’s interest to deliver good quality of products in the increasing demand in the competing world of business. In handling certain situations regarding this, companies adhere to some of the progressive disciplinary process such as verbal caution, verbal warning, written warning, suspension the decision to leave, and termination. Jack manages a call centre for a mail order company. Frequently his reps end up staying late because call volume is heavy. These results in a lot of overtime pay that Jack would like to avoid. He’s considering reclassifying the position as exempt so he wouldn’t have to pay them overtime. He would, however, give them a small raise when he reclassifies them. Do you think Jack’s idea has merit? Discuss the pros and cons. Answer: With regard to the idea of jack that represents the company as a whole, I think it would be best to lay down some of the legal basis before pursuing to these reclassifications of job. The companies, before hiring, has probably gone through job descriptions and in reclassifying those, there must be a compliance within the Department of Labor regulations or otherwise, misclassifications of a job will be subjected to fines and penalties as a part of the consequences. There are certain conditions that must be met for an employee to be exempt job classifications like lawyers, accountants and doctors. Advantages on the part of the company on the exempt job classification is that the company is not required anymore to pay any back overtime but it is also nice that the company offers to pay something even if not being required to do so. I think it is also beneficial on the part of the employee considering that the change takes place only in the classification and not on the job so it is expected that the working hours beyond 40 hours weekly is subjected to be paid as overtime. You are the HR Manager for a retail store with 4 locations within one metropolitan area. The company's sales/marketing strategy has been to be the low cost leader (i.e. have lower prices than competitors), and therefore the compensation strategy has been to pay its store employees just above minimum wage, in the first quartile. Your boss has just told you that he is changing the strategy and now he wants to provide "optimum service", and not necessarily the lowest prices. What changes should be made in the company's compensation strategy as a result of this new direction? You expect your boss will be surprised at how much impact the new pay strategy will have on the payroll budget. What could you suggest to reduce the impact? Answer: In the situation that was given above, there were two concerns involved that have to b e dealt with, the increase in the salary and implementation of the lower cost of the products against the competitors. Lowering the price of the products at the store against the rest of the competitors is a very powerful strategy in attracting more customers that would increase the sales in a certain stores. With regard to these the company is eyeing to also increase the compensation on the part of the wage of the workforce. I think that the main objective of the compensation

Philosophy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Philosophy - Essay Example Matters of fact, which are the second objects of human reason, are not ascertained in the same manner; nor is our evidence of their truth, however great, of a like nature with the foregoing... It may, therefore, be a subject worthy of curiosity, to enquire what is the nature of that evidence which assures us of any real existence and matter of fact, beyond the present testimony of our senses, or the records of our memory. This part of philosophy, it is observable, has been little cultivated, either by the ancients or moderns; and therefore our doubts and errors, in the prosecution of so important an enquiry, may be the more excusable; while we march through such difficult paths without any guide or direction... All reasonings concerning matter of fact seem to be founded on the relation of Cause and Effect. By means of that relation alone we can go beyond the evidence of our memory and senses.† In many ways, Hume’s writings represent initial steps towards an organized psychology in the West, for he was analyzing the way that the mind operates and created models of consciousness within a philosophical framework based upon the scientific method. The skepticism of Hume is targeted at traditional superstitions, common wisdom assumptions, and even religious beliefs as these may obscure what is actually real and true by biasing the mind and perception.

MHE599 - Culminating Project Module 5 - Case Essay

MHE599 - Culminating Project Module 5 - Case - Essay Example however in other cases their response to the disaster will be inadequate without proper steps and this will to lead to views that Federal government bodies could have done a better job. This scenario of inadequate response was visible during the disaster of Hurricane Katrina in the geographical region of Louisiana. U.S. Constitution’s 10th Amendment states that, â€Å"The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.† (gpoaccess.gov). That is, through this amendment, the constitution entrusts the responsibility of public health and safety of the people in a particular state to the respective states itself. This means the emergency management of disasters and other tragedies as well as law enforcement is also the responsibility of the state government and local bodies. Critics of this amendment and ones who are against further autonomy for the local governments state that giving the responsibility of public health and safety particularly during emergencies would be too much for the local bodies. The 10th Amendment provides significant responsibility on the states; however Hurricane Katrina because of certain shortfalls has proved that the amendment wrongly places too much responsibility on the states. Although, in course of our history, several state and local governments have done an adequate and commendable job in aiding the public in times of natural disasters like earthquakes, hurricanes, Tsunami, etc, it is not the case all the time. Hurricane Katrina is one such case of inadequate response because the first responders, Louisianan government and New Orleans City council themselves became the victims of the catastrophe, as their local infrastructure was maximally wiped out. Along with this shortfall, the local bodies performed inadequately raising questions regarding the 10th Amendment and how the Federal bodies if involved maximally could have

Genocide Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Genocide - Essay Example This document distinguishes several types of perpetrators and their involvement in genocide through examples. It also defines the content of the crime according to the international law and the convention towards the prevention and punishment of genocide. Finally, the different kinds of genocide based on their intent as retributive, cultural, latent, optimal, and utilitarian are discussed. Most people in the society tend to use the general concepts such as mass murder and massacre, while referring to genocide. They may also associate the delivery of justice with the local governments after the crime, since they have no idea of the international protection by the law. Genocide is a crime defined in the international criminal law, and is currently handled by the International Criminal Court (ICC), based in the Netherlands at Hague. The ICC aims to protect the potential victims, bring to trial or apprehend suspected perpetrators, while giving justice to the affected in the society. Several international organizations define the crime based on destruction targeting a particular group of people within a domain; however, what distinguishes the crime from others is the motivation behind it. According to Rummel (2002), history shows different situations where people had been murdered under the authority of their rulers and governments, either in war or by strict instructions given to exterminate rebellious groups; even though, legal application of the term ‘Genocide’ came into use first in the indictment of the Nazi war criminals, at Nuremburg tribunal between 1945 and 1946, in association with Raphael Lemkin. Although the ICC is an independent judicial system, it works closely with the United Nations to uphold human rights and campaign against genocide. The crime of genocide is not limited to mass killings but it covers a wide scope. It is defined in the international law in the convention on the prevention and punishment

Ancient and Medieval Political Theory Assignment - 1

Ancient and Medieval Political Theory - Assignment Example This is because men are their traditional enemies. Furthermore, Pisthetaerus explains to the birds that they are the original gods, and hence they should reclaim their position by building a city in the sky. This would blockade the Olympian gods, into accessing the worship of men, and hence force them into submission2. In the context of this text, power means the ability of making other people to be submissive to an individual. Furthermore, it means the ability to reclaim the past glory or honor. That is, the birds were once gods, and hence, they should reclaim their position from the Olympian gods. This concept of power has been extensively discussed in this class. For example, we learn of authoritarian rule, democracies, and tyrannies. All these are different types of powers and authorities exercised by governments. Democracy, is the rule of many, while tyranny, is the rule of minority, and by force. Authoritarian rule and tyranny are examples of dictatorships. All these are aspects of power. Political power is an aspect that affects the contemporary society3. States are normally encouraged to establish a democratic system of governance. This is because democracy ensures that there is transparency in the governance process. Countries such as United States is a democracy, and it rarely has a good diplomatic relationship with countries that are authoritarian and

Humanities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Humanities - Essay Example As the paper outlines arts played a major role especially in the urban society leading to a progressive and dynamic growth. With growth, intellectual innovations and spiritual tensions in the Church there emerged new and creative styles in architecture, visual arts, literature and music. The three relationships of art during the Middle Ages that I would like to discuss with my students would be on architecture, literature and music. On the architectural front, an artistic renaissance emerged and was supported by both religious and secular patrons. Islamic and Byzantine civilizations created an impact resulting in Romanesque architecture that involved magnificent cathedrals with round archways and intricate stone carvings. Following this was the Gothic architecture with its flying buttresses and vaulted ribs such as used in the Notre Dame in Paris. Secondly, Literacy flourished during the Middle Ages. Latin was the dominant language in which many books were written but were also trans lated into other languages such as English, German and French. Lyrical poetry played an important role by celebrating the love between knights and ladies in the court. Epic tales of chivalry, love and heroism were exemplified in wonderful literary works such as ‘Beowulf’, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and Canterbury Tales. Enlightening literature on Religion on the biographies of saints and their miracles were beautifully drawn and painted on handwritten manuscripts in gold and other brilliant colors. Thirdly, during the Middle Ages, music was considered to be an integral part of their lives and as it evolved, it increased in complexity with the monophonic Gregorian chant and interesting ballads that involved the complex weaving together of polyphonic musical lines.

Article analysis 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Analysis 2 - Article Example The results of the study showed a different picture of what is usually assumed concerning marketing. This is shown below: Literature Review From the literature review of the article, we get to know that three factors namely price, product and promotions are used in ensuring that business operate efficiently and marketing campaigns are conducted effectively. The article makes an analysis of price and in fact talks of price being a major factor in terms of ensuring customer numbers are achieved. The article emphasis on the need for a good pricing model since price is responsible for generation of income (Etzel, 2004). Another important factor was promotion in that it determines the way people are informed of a certain brand, service of product. As a result, managers should make use of promotion methods that enhance brand perception such as messages which persuade, inform and linger in minds and hearts of consumers (Daniels, 2009). These factors influence the behaviour of consumers in d ifferent sections of the world and in relation to ChiangMai, the four P’s (Price, Product, Promotion and Place) are important in marketing tourism in the region. The place in this article looks into ChiangMai as a tourist destination with a lot of attractions to offer in terms of nature, culture and the hotel industry (Kandampully, 2007). Hotels in the region rely on the four P’s of marketing to enhance their product offering and thus some 19 hotels decided to conduct a research based on these factors. In this case, questionnaires were deployed for the purpose of conducting the study and these questionnaires were given to managers and hotel guests. Analysis The marketing study was done based on certain variables and the study measured the implementation of marketing practices of hotels and resorts against customer satisfaction levels based on product offering, pricing and promotions. In terms of ownership, the hotels in ChiangMai are either corporate or individually ow ned and this affects that way businesses are marketed. For instance, solely owned hotels have unlimited liability unlike corporations while age of the hotel is also a big factor since many of the hotels in ChiangMai have been operation for a long time. The products offered by these hotels were also surveyed and this included the rooms, types of services, size of rooms and it was found out that most of the hotels offer both sleep and food services (Swarbrooke, 2012). In the process of serving customers, the data analysis revealed that offering food in addition to lodging created better revenues. Apart from offering good products, the services that were offered by ChiangMai’s hotels were superior in the fact that the managers considered services such good hygiene, prompt and courteous service were highly considered in marketing. However, it is the level of implementation the marketing strategies and goals that was important in the process of undertaking this study. In terms of making use of price factor, most hotel managers made use fair pricing systems to attract customers (Sangkaworn, 2008). However, promotion was considered among the high priorities of managers in terms of marketing since hotels made use of friendly gestures and hospitality to attract and retain customers. When the two set of factors were correlated for the purposes of the study, it was found out

Human Growth and Development Essay Example for Free

Human Growth and Development Essay Within the Hispanic culture, the generations that have come before us have struggled to keep traditions alive and thriving. Putting emphasis on proper traditions and celebrations is important. Our elders believe that it will keep our heritage strong. For example, there are two holidays that I would like to discuss, that are important to the Hispanic culture. These two holiday celebrations are Christmas and Dia de los Muertos, or the Day of the Dead. Both of these holidays are celebrated enthusiastically, with food, family, music, and fun. My family takes pride in celebrating both of these holidays. The Day of the Dead, celebrated on November 1 and November 2 of each year, is a joyful holiday celebration, despite its morbid name. Death, particularly of a loved one, is celebrated as a new stage of life. Families decorate the graves with offerings such as toys, flowers, and small items that belonged to the deceased. This holiday is celebrated to honor the spirits, and life, of those who have died. One major cultural tradition that is celebrated during Christmas, other than Christmas itself, is Posada. This tradition is celebrated during the nine days before Christmas Eve. The travel of Saint Joseph and a pregnant Mary to Bethlehem is reenacted. Two statues, one of Saint Joseph and one of Mary, are carried to three predetermined house where the residents are asked for shelter. Two of those houses refuse shelter for the family. The third house accepts the plea for shelter, representing the Inn Keeper who helped the family. A Novena, a prayer with the rosary, then occurs. After the prayer there is a party. The last day of Posada is the celebration of the birth of Jesus. The two cultural traditions described above have influenced not only my own development, but they have also helped the society develop. Within my own development, the environmental exposure, combined with more modern traditions, has helped me develop my sense of self and my own morals. The culture, as taught by our elders, has showed me the importance on the family in fostering the development of others. Within the society, the Hispanic culture, as with any culture, has helped to broaden the knowledge of others. This has helped children understand that there are differences between people; not every person is the same. Question 2: Explain the difference between an experiment, a study, and a quasi experiment, using detail. An experiment is used to determine a person’s behavior and/or development by altering different characterizations of the environment. The dependent variable would represent the behavior and/or development that is expected from the experiment. The independent variable represents the measures that would be taken by the experimenter, and also represents the cause in a ‘cause and effect’ relationship. For example, if a researcher was testing treatments to slow the progression of multiple sclerosis, the type of treatment would be called the independent variable, while the lesion scans would be called the dependent variable. There are a few factors that have to be considered before considering an experiment: the control group must consist of members that are randomly selected and equal to the experimental group; the object(s) of the experiment must be accurately categorized; and all experiments must be legal. A study consists of one group or person. There is no need for a control group or experimental characteristics. The function of a study is to provide information that is collected and analyzed. Observing, testing, and interviewing are all techniques used in a study. A study can spark an interest in experimentation. A study can help form a hypothesis that can be used for experimentation. Many of the early development information were derived from using a study on individuals. The information that was gained from such studies lead to experiments changing variables, which in turn gave way to much of the information we now have published regarding human development. A quasi experiment is similar to a regular experiment except for a few details: While a normal experiment uses random selecting and control groups, the quasi experiment uses a matching technique. Quasi experimenting uses elaboration – the process of sub-classifying or reclassifying variables. Quasi experimenting also involves narrowing down the dependent variable, known as specification. Question 3: Some developmental theorists focus on culture (Bronfenbrenner and Vygotsky) and others focus on individual history and experience (Skinner and Freud). Compare and contrast these theorists’ influences and how we see human development today while referring to their theory’s strengths and weaknesses. Freud’s believed that a person’s emotions and drives are influenced by the subconscious mind. Each person is unaware of the reasons by which they strive to fill their biological needs. For example, a woman may overeat as a way of subconsciously substituting food for frustration. Bronfenbrenner believed that a person’s development was centered around their environment. The interaction between a person’s biology, family, and society determines the development of that person. Any changes in a person’s environment could also change that person’s development. Skinner used operant conditioning, which theorized that a specific behavior could be changed through reinforcement or punishment. Skinner believed that human development depended on the person’s learning experience. This theory believed that a behavior could be changed or removed with either positive or negative reinforcement. Vygotsky stressed the importance of social interaction as a fundamental role of development. Full social interaction would engage cognitive development. Vygotsky’s theory was that of a social development theory, similar in comparison to Piaget. Question 4: Nature vs. Nurture. Discuss the gene/environment debate in terms of the interaction of genetics, biology, maturation, learning, society, and culture. Nature and nurture†¦one uses our environment as a determining factor for development, while the other uses human biology as a determining factor for development. Using nature as a determining factor theorizes that human development is left to what is encoded into human DNA. With this factor, humans have no control over their own development. Using nurture theorizes that the environment controls human development. With this factor, if the environment is changed, development can also be changed. This will always be a constant debate among the psychological community because of the fact that no two people are the same, and therefore, no two people develop the same.

Logistics in Event Planning and Management

Logistics in Event Planning and Management 1. Introduction Nowadays, events are very popular and occasionally happen very often around us as the people emphasize on the leisure activities, public events, celebration, education and entertainment and also marketing strategy and business purpose such as trade fair, produce lounge and promotion. The community groups and individuals are interested by the events for their own interest and business. Event can be defined as participation of the group of people to enjoy or attend for corporate goals or individual benefits. 2. Event Planning Event planning focus on the planning process of a specific event such as conference, Christmas function, fashion show, wedding or antique fair, to achieve it targeted objective and goal. The tasks of the event planner include choosing a venue and destination for the event, creating event design and layout, researches, arranging the food and beverage, decoration, and also entertainment. Coordination with the event personal and supervising the whole project are also the part of the role of the planner. The elements of the planning process include objectives, planning, organization, implement and divestment. Event planning deals with a lot of organization and community and the event managers who can handle the pressure and work hard have to communicate with them for the effective planning. Actually event planning is time consuming and a lot of works. Event management is made up of a number of management areas including planning, leading, marketing design, control and budgeting, risk man agement, logistics, staging and evaluation (Bowdin, Allen, OToole, Harris, McDonnell, 2008).The project management is very vital to an event as it is the purpose of creating the unique event. It is not only about how to develop the event but also the impacts of the event have to be recognized for recent issue and future. The impacts of/ to event have to be take into account. Social, cultural, political, economic, and logistic and environmental issues are the part of the impacts. An event focus on a specific purpose and it has own mission, objectives, policies, and structure to achieve effectiveness and success. A special event such as wedding or other significant occasion held once in a life time and it should be perfect for the best memory. In every event a clear statement of purpose, vision and mission should be provided. The organizing and planning of the event should be control by quality management such as procedure and system. Creativity, innovative and challenge should be summed, so that the reputation and image of the event planning of the company would be positively effect and in the future, the more opportunity will come over. 2.1 Analysis of events planning The experiences of the event are very important to guests, hosts and even to the public. After developing the idea how to create the concept of the event, analysis of the event planning should be take place to understand how this event meant to the people and how to get the positive perception from them. Now the guests experiences and every single detail have to be considered because those single pieces impact the event positively or negatively. First of all operation should strongly focus on the service which is very important to the people. 3. Operational Management The main target of every event project approach to be qualified operated within the targeted budget, handling the product to the organizer or hostess and at the same time getting the customer satisfaction and getting good reputation. Once the event is start, if any mistake which can harm to the companys business, wont have a chance to redo it. The stages of event operational management include analysis stage, detailed planning, implementation and delivery and performance evaluation (Tum, Norton and Wright, 2006). The review analysis from the previous event and performance evaluation help the internal and external analysis according to set the mission statement, so that the operational manager can perform the planning process. In the context of an event involves decision making concerning with the type of event, destination, location, venue, timing and programs that will make the unique or special event. An organizational structure will be created after following the decision to proce ed, through the delivering event. The structure can be varied according to the different event life cycle progresses and supported elements to the organizational structure are staffs, workforce, culture and ethical issues. Financial management is also the part of the operation and it includes budgeting, costing, pricing, accounting and also the cash flow management. Information management- information acquisition, distribution and control, Time management- activity architecture, schedule development and schedule control. Stake holder managementt: client and constituency relations, 3.1 Space Management 3.2 Logistic Management Logistic is part of the process of event planning and it involve the detail organizing of goods, equipments and people and deliver the output to the customer which meet the customer perception and satisfaction. It can simply say the involvement of communication, flow and supply (Bowdin, Allen, OToole, Harris, McDonnell, 2008). Timing is very vital to the event as it has the specific plan and program during the event, so that the operation of the staff should be under control by the banquet manager. For example the staffs need to know when to present the food and when to clean up. The operational manager should take the responsibility to make sure that the timing of clean up and tear down should be done in timely manner. The cooperation of banquet manager and event planner should work together for effectiveness of timing. There are some points that should consider setting an event staffs schedule. For example, staff scheduling is not only assigning the staffs the work to be done, but also increasing the efficiency at lower human resource cost. The usage of staff and time slot also has to be balanced, so that the manpower will not be waste and it manages cost effective. 4. Risk Management The issues of the risk management is very priority to a event and the event manager have to be aware of nature of risk and risk factors that can affect to a specific event prior to make the many decisions. To be managed a unique event; the manager should have the knowledge and understanding of risks very first moment of event organizing. For example, when brainstorming the event design, risk is very considerable to avoid the potential negative outcome and image of the hotel or company. Actually the risk management is under process when the project is start, design and organized. Risk can be the positive or negative outcomes that may associate with people, property, finances, systems, environments and image. Risk management is the purposeful recognition of and reaction to uncertainties with the explicit objective to minimize liabilities and maximizing opportunities using a structured approach and common sense rather than avoiding the issue. The goal of risk management include the protection of assets, to minimize legal and financial liabilities, to control potential loss property manage growth and to operate responsibly. The focus area of risk management includes legal and ethical responsibilities, health and safety loss prevention, emergency preparedness and good decision making. Eg. risk Injury or death Property loss or damage Reduced revenue, capacity or capability Resource availability Increased demand Loss of goodwill or reputation The company conference is the assembly of people of the purpose of exchanging information debate or discussion, consensus or decision. The risk factors of company conference might include the people property, or propriety information that must be protected. Proper contracting with hotels and other suppliers to achieve an acceptable balance of protection and risk for both the hosting organization and the service provider. Antique fair theft o the products on display and the display equipment. Christmas function Social and life style event such as wedding reception the most common risk are related to the inexperience of the organizer, often unaware of the scope of responsibilities associated with event management and or under pressure from a client with unrealistic demands. Fashion show un lunerable to financial instability and non- professional management. The emphasis on getting consumer attention can sometimes lead to potentially dangerous activities or tactics. Nature of risk and risk actors are varied event to event and there is no risk free event. It has to be manage in order to achieve the ibjective of the event and the goal of the risk management. (Silvers, 2008) 5. Health and Safety Management Event operation staffs should be well train to perform perfectly and follow the SOP of the hotel with safety awareness. Some staffs can work very first to set up the table and room but they sometime ignore the things which can occur the hazards. For example a staff drops a glass and breaks are not clean effectively clean, it can harm to the guest or the staffs which is bad image to the event. But to prevent this, observation to the set up before the event start is very essential to create the safety hazards.

Trump’s Foreign Policy Agenda on North Korea

Trump’s Foreign Policy Agenda on North Korea Which administration cabinet officer supported foreign policy on North Korea ? Secretary of Defense James Mattis has supported The president in negotiations with North Korea. Mattis has been against military action against North Korea. However, Mattis is very aware of the danger that North Korea is posing to the United States. This threat has been steadily growing and Secretary of Defense Mattis believes that â€Å"North Korea has accelerated the threat that it poses to its neighbors and the world through its illegal and unnecessary missile and nuclear weapons programs.[6]† Mattis has maintained alliances and attended meetings with leaders and representatives of nations that are allies of the US in order to provide pressure from all sides in order to deter and control North Korea’s nuclear proliferation. Secretary of State Rex Tillerson has also been closely involved in the creation of foreign policy on North Korea. Tillerson’s mentality towards North Korea is very similar to that of Secretary of Defense Mattis. Tillerson believes that nego tiations towards peace â€Å"can only be achieved by denuclearizing, giving up their weapons of mass destruction.[7]† Both cabinet members have played key roles in the Trump administration on the topic of North Korean foreign policy. Was the Congress heavily involved? Congress has not been heavily involved in North Korean foreign policy. Under President Obama’s term, Congress had passed sanctions. But under President Trump’s term, Congress has not been involved with foreign policy on North Korea. It has been handled so far only by the president in the form of executive orders, along with the council of his cabinet members, mainly Secretary of State Rex Tillerson and Secretary of Defense James Mattis. Which interest groups were involved? The two big interest groups in this situation are Russia and China. Both countries have supplied aid to North Korea in order to keep it in power, but for different reasons. China has supported North Korea for so long in order to keep a buffer zone between them and South Korea, a United States ally. China does not want the US at their border and will keep supporting North Korea as long as the trade-off of goods for this buffer zone is worth it. Russia has also been supplying North Korea with resources for many years, but the reason it is doing so is that it wants to reassert itself as a global power. Russia wants to extend its influence outside of Europe and into the Asian Pacific. Both nations seek to gain something from the survival and future growth of North Korea as a key player in the region. South Korea is the biggest interest group, with North Korea being right above them. If North Korea launched an attack, South Korea would be the first and most likely target of said attack. T hey will be the first affected by any change in North Korea, for better or worse. The United States also has interests in the region. South Korea has US military bases and is a key ally in the region. If North Korea attacked the south, it would destabilize the region and pose an immediate threat to US interests. If North Korea stopped its production of nuclear weapons and stopped performing tests, it would lower tensions and allow the US to comfortably remain in the region in order to ensure democratic control of the region. The History of North Korean policy The United States policy on North Korea begins with the Korean war. This war began in June 1950 and came to an end in July 1953. This war came to fruition when North Korean leader Kim il-Sung successfully convinced Soviet leader Joseph Stalin that the time had come to launch an invasion of South Korea. On June 25, 1950, the north had begun an attack by striking across the 38th parallel into the south. In response to this attack, President Truman decided not to seek a declaration of war from Congress, believing that it would be an overreaction. Immediate action was needed and Truman decided to go directly to the United Nations. He requested sanctions against North Korea, and â€Å"Under U.S. guidance, the UN called for the invasion to halt (June 25), then for the UN member states to provide military assistance to the ROK (June 27). [1]† However, this did not stop the fighting and did not keep the North from killing those who protested against them. Once the United States began to back South Korea with troops, they managed to push them back past the 38th parallel until China began to send reinforcements. Soon, a stalemate was reached at the 38th parallel. In July 1953, an armistice was reached but the war was not declared officially over. Future sanctions against North Korea first came from the United Nations. These sanctions began after North Korea displayed its capacity for the creation of nuclear weaponry with its first nuclear test in 2006. The first sanctions came from resolution 1718, â€Å"which prevents a range of goods from entering or leaving the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and imposes an asset freeze and travel ban on persons related to the nuclear-weapon programme.[2]† The latest sanctions to come from the UN were passed on September 11, 2017, with resolution 2375. These sanctions limited North Koreas exports â€Å"including a ban on the sale of natural gas liquids to the North-East Asian nation, and on its textile expo rts — while also prohibiting Member States from providing work authorizations to its nationals.[3]† However, North Korea has continually ignored these sanctions and continued to have a nuclear weapons program. The United States has also enacted sanctions against North Korea, beginning in 2016 with President Obama. The proposed sanctions passed both the house and senate. The sanctions â€Å"Impose[d] mandatory sanctions for entities that are involved in North Korea’s mineral or metal trade, which contribute to a large component of the country’s foreign export earnings.[4]† The most recent sanctions have come from President Trump on September 25, 2017, which were enacted as executive orders. The executive order â€Å"expanded his controversial travel ban to include people from North Korea, Venezuela and Chad, citing security concerns.[5]† However, despite these actions, North Korea has not been deterred from continuing its developments of Nucle ar weapons. Evaluation of the foreign policy on North Korea The United States foreign policy on North Korea has been focused on sanctions that will put a strain on both their economy and the progression of their nuclear program. These sanctions have limited both their imports and exports so that they may not purchase resources nor make money by selling the goods that they do have, such as natural gas. These sanctions have been ineffective, no matter how restrictive they have been, due to their allies supplying them with the resources that they need to maintain power. Further sanctions will prove to be fruitless if this issue is not solved, and it may be best to find another way to limit their production of nuclear arms. However, this will not be possible if North Korea is pushed to the point where it will attack. In the past few months, the president has been threatening military action towards North Korea if they do not stop testing ICBMs. President Trump has posted a tweet on the matter, stating that â€Å"Our country has been unsuccessful ly dealing with North Korea for 25 years, giving billions of dollars & getting nothing. Policy didnt work![8]† The growing threat of North Korea is a result of its recent successful missile tests. This success paired with the ineffectiveness of past sanctions is pushing The United States towards considering a preemptive strike on North Korea, especially if negotiations break down further. Conclusions   Military action is not needed in order to resolve the threat that North Korea is posing on the United States and its allies. Sanctions have proved to be ineffective towards deterring them from continuing a nuclear weapons program, but perhaps a different course of action could be taken to progress these talks. It would be best to refrain from escalating the situation by remaining quiet and not speak about military action, which may be what they want because that would allow them to justify the existence of their program. A neutral party may be necessary to provide a medium for communications between the United States and North Korea. The two leaders would not be able to speak and negotiate publicly due to the ramifications of doing so. North Korea would begin to lose support from their allies, Russia and China. The United States also could not hold public negotiations due to their classification of North Korea as a sponsor of terrorism. Negotiating with North Korea may give the impression that the US will negotiate with terrorists. This part of the problem can be solved by declassifying them as a sponsor of terror. This would ease tensions slightly and may even open a small path for diplomacy. A party that is both familiar with and impartial towards the United States and North Korea would ease the progression of diplomacy. This would be the way to de-escalate the situation in North Korea and avoid military action that would lead to a second Korean war, which is what forced these tensions to be created in the first place. Works Cited Millett, Allan R. Korean War. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica, inc, 17 July 2017. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.SECURITY COUNCIL CONDEMNS NUCLEAR TEST BY DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF KOREA, UNANIMOUSLY ADOPTING RESOLUTION 1718 (2006). United Nations, United Nations, 14 Oct. 2006, www.un.org/press/en/2006/sc8853.doc.htm. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.Security Council Imposes Fresh Sanctions on Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Including Bans on Natural Gas Sales, Work Authorization for Its Nationals. United Nations, United Nations, 11 Sept. 2017, www.un.org/press/en/2017/sc12983.doc.htm. Accessed 2 Dec. 2017.Fifield, Anna. Punishing North Korea: A rundown on current sanctions. The Washington Post, The Washington Post, 22 Feb. 2016. Accessed 4 Dec. 2017.US expands travel ban to include N Korea. BBC, BBC, 25 Sept. 2017, www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-41382585. Accessed 4 Dec. 2017Manchester, Julia. Mattis: North Korea threat has ‘accelerated’. The Hill, The Hill, 28 Oct. 2017. Accessed 5 Dec. 2017Sanger, David E. Rex Tillerson Rejects Talks With North Korea on Nuclear Program. The New York Times, The New York Times, 17 Mar. 2017. Accessed 6 Dec. 2017.Trump, Donald J. (@realDonaldTrump) â€Å"Our country has been unsuccessfully dealing with North Korea for 25 years, giving billions of dollars & getting nothing. Policy didnt work!† 9 Oct. 2017, 3:50 AM, Tweet

Disclosure in Work Environments Essay -- Communication, Interpersonal

Open communication between individuals is very important. This quality is what makes relationships run smoothly between two or more individuals. Barnett, Cochran and Taylor explored significant relations between the openness of communication between management and employees in a previous study (1993). These researchers found that employees expressed concerns and the level of internal disclosures by employees in the study (Barnett et al., 1993). Barnett, Cochran and Taylor also found in their study that external whistle blowing may lead to â€Å"negative publicity, regulatory investigations, and legal liability issues† (1993). Trying to hold back or quiet employees may make the problem between the employees worse. Internal disclosures provide organizations an opportunity to explore and correct wrongdoing, and avoid the more negative consequences of external whistle blowing (Barnett et al., 1993). Disclosure in Work Environments 4 As sexual harassment can be a major topic in literature and in the workplace, organizations make sure to focus attention on the legal problems that may become evident if the harassment occurs (Bingham, 1991). Bingham investigated the interpersonal aspect of sexual harassment in this study to find how to eliminate the problem of sexual harassment (1991). In disclosure related situations, exchanging too much personal information to another employee can result in sexual harassment. In doing so, individuals must be careful in whom they are disclosing information to. Many individuals may feel uncomfortable in the situation. In many companies, sexual harassment is taken very seriously. Before an employee is hired at most companies they are explained the harassment precautions and regulations. In do... ...esearchers (Sias & Cahill, 1998). Peer friendships can offer a source of immanent rewards for employees. These rewards can protect against job-related anxiety, and can reduce job frustration and turnover (Sias & Cahill, 1998). By sticking together in the work environment, individuals are able to overcome obstacles at their employment. In doing so, individuals realize that they are not in it alone. The researchers found that peer friendships were based on both individual and circumstantial factors. For many, these workplace peers become more than just coworkers; they may also become friends (Sias & Cahill, 1998). The workplace did not act as a vessel for the friendships, but it played a significant role in the friendships developmental process. As their artificial influence decreased the friendship became closer and more interpersonal (Sias & Cahill, 1998).

The Social Effects of Television Essay -- TV Media

The Social Effects of Television The social effects of television are numerous and definitely vary in positive and negative ways. Since television was first introduced it’s been a very large part of America’s society. Television started as a form of entertainment that would be watched by the family for an hour a night as a relaxing way of getting away from the stresses of real life. Television has now turned into one of the biggest industries in the world, and has more influence than anyone could have imagined. Many people view television as a very positive form of entertainment, as it is without a doubt the most popular kind in the world. There are also those people who say that television is going to be the downfall of our society and we are becoming much to dependent on it. Television allows the viewer to leave their everyday life and enter into a world full of fun, adventure, and even love. Television is now used by many children for educational purposes. Everyone has seen at least a little of Barney, a show that helps kids learn the alphabet and many life lessons as well. There are now tens if not hundreds of shows that are like Barney broadcast all over the world. These shows help a child develop the social skills that one needs at such a young age. Television can be argued to have brought families together. It may not be good that dinner is served in front of the television every so often, but at least the family is together. In this world of fast paced activity, it is hard to find a family that actually sits down to dinner more than once a week. Television is arguably the best form of media and current information that can be found. Everyday of the week, 24 hours a day a person can find current news b... ...their lives are nothing like the ones seen on television. Television is fast-paced, exciting, and very often a little overboard. A large drawback of television is that many people, women and men, perceive themselves as less of a person. Often, one is not as beautiful or as handsome as a person seen on television. Or one is not as smart, or as good at sports as people on television. Television can be seen as a very good thing to have come out of the 20th Century, and it can be seen as something that should never have been invented. There is no arguing though about the dependency and love many people have for television. Much of the world, especially America, depends on television for a great range of things from education, to information, to entertainment. Television has shaped and changed our society and our world in ways that can never be fully understood.

The Physics of the Sound Wave and its Effects on the Human Ear Essay

The Physics of the Sound Wave and its Effects on the Human Ear Could you imagine living in a world without sound? It would be enormously different from the world that we know. Our primary form of inter-human communication would be based on visual or tactile imagery. Our sense of perception would be changed. Telecommunication would be different. We would not have the pleasure of music or the soothing sounds of nature. Sound has had an immense impact on our world. This essay will explore the unseen world of sound waves and how humans perceive them. Generally, people hear sound waves traveling through air. These waves cannot be seen, but are heard or felt via vibration. Sound waves originate from vibrating objects and travel in longitudinal waves through mediums (such as a solid, a liquid, or a gaseous material). These types of waves are defined by the textbook as: â€Å"†¦wave[s] in which the vibrations of the medium are parallel to the direction the wave is moving.1† Figure 8.52 shows an excellent example of a tuning fork producing longitudinal waves, which are perceived as sound. It is apparent that as the prongs are struck, they move outward. As they move outward, the neighboring air molecules are compressed together creating what is called compression. The tuning fork prongs reverse the pressure as they move inward and cause a rarefaction (the opposite of a compression) in the neighboring air molecules. The process is repeated until the tuning fork returns to its resting state. As previously stated, sound waves can travel through various mediums. The universal formula to obtain the speed of a sound wave is:Speed=distance/time. â€Å"The faster which a sound wave travels, the more distance it will cover in the same period of tim... ...le that has an intensity of 10-3 W/m2 can be determined2: db = 10 log 10 ( 10-3/10-12 ) = 90-dB. Decibel levels from 0-80 dB are safe to the human ear. Prolonged exposure to sounds higher than that can result in hearing damage. With the factors of frequency and amplitude brought into relation of hearing, it is apparent that nothing would be understood without the concepts that can be referred to from physics. Physics enables the analysis of the human’s ability to understand sound waves. References: 1-Kirkpatrick, L.D. (2001). Physics A World View. (4 ed.) Philadelphia: Harcourt 2-Russell, K. (1997). Sound Waves. Retrieved: 4-30-03 From: www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/arts/linguistics/ressell/138/sec4/actoust/htm 3-Henderson, T. (1998). Sound Waves and the Eardrum. Retrieved: 4-30-03 From: Http://www.glenbrook.k12/gbssci/phys/mmedia/waves/edl.html 4

Classical Humanism in Art

5) Classical Humanism in Art Juxtapose two or more works from this period which you feel are illustrative of the renewed interest and enthusiasm for/reinvention of classical humanism. Describe the works in detail, discuss their internal symbols and larger social, cultural and political significances re attitudes to classical humanism C15 Italy Humanism intro Renaissance patrons understood the power of imagery and used it to extent their fame Courts throughout Italy were thriving centers of artistic activity and vied with each other for prominent humanist scientists, writers, architects,painters and sculptors Humanist subjects were taught in schools. The most enlightened renaissance popes encouraged the humanist assimilation of ancient greek and roman philosophies into their own Christian faith Inspired by the ideas in ancient greek and roman texts, which confirmed their new intellectual and scientific interests in understanding the world The praise of the deeds of great figures from antiquity that the humanists found in roman and greek texts supported the notions of pride and fame that were becoming important in a society whose major figures were successful business entrepreneurs and bankers Sought to supplement faith by insisting on the dignity of the individual and human potential for achievement Gave art and artist a new dignity and opened the way for a new level of literary discussions on art Natural observation –an important feature Expanding middle class, new types of art were commissioned by individuals to adorn their private town houses of country villas The dignity of the individual and new selfconsciousness promoted by e Italian humanists had an important influence on attitudes about artists Renaissance artists were viewed as trained intellectuals versed in the classics and geometry Artists became famous Began to create self portaits, a sure indication of theit new status Artists and workshops received a variety of secular and religious commissions Rulers continued to employ works of art for the traditional purposes of exalting and consolidating their power Rulers often commissioned portraits POLITICAL he humanists created, or recreated a structure of values different from that on which medieval ideals of chivalry and nobility were based. humanism was nurtured in the italian city-states, with their republican (not clerical or aristocratic) govts. , epitomized the new ideals of self-reliance and civic virtue - civic and mundane, not chivalric or contemplative. SOCIAL & CULTURAL the growth and spread of humanism is pre-eminent in the intellectual history of the fifteenth century but its r/s with the visual arts is complex and sometimes ambiguous. dontello's statues exhibit a dignity and realism. his works embodied the new ideal man of the renaissance and showed people as self-determined individuals, powerful and intellectually alive.

Pareto Optimality

Pareto efficiency, or  Pareto optimality, is a concept in  economics  with applications in  engineering  and  social sciences. The term is named after  Vilfredo Pareto, an  Italianeconomist who used the concept in his studies of  economic efficiency  and  income distribution. [citation needed] Given an initial allocation of  goods  among a set of  individuals, a change to a different allocation that makes at least one individual  better off  without making any other individual worse off is called a  Pareto improvement. An allocation is defined as â€Å"Pareto efficient† or â€Å"Pareto optimal† when no further Pareto improvements can be made. Pareto efficiency is a minimal notion of efficiency and does not necessarily result in a socially desirable distribution of resources: it makes no statement about equality, or the overall well-being of a society. [1][2] A state of affairs where it is not possible to improve the economic lot of some people without making others worse off; a  mercantilist view. The implications of this view in welfare economics are that, once an economy has ceased to grow, it is impossible to increase the wealth of the poor without opposing the  Pareto criterion; in other words, without making the rich worse off. This then becomes an argument for retaining the  status quo, even if the distribution of income in society is very uneven. A  Pareto improvement, however, occurs if resources can be better utilized so that one group's prosperity increases, but not at a cost to another's. DEFINITION OF NEGOTIATION Negotiation is one of the most common approaches used to make decisions and manage disputes. It is also the major building block for many other alternative dispute resolution procedures. Negotiation occurs between spouses, parents and children, managers and staff, employers and employees, professionals and clients, within and between organizations and between agencies and the public. Negotiation is a problem-solving process in which two or more people voluntarily discuss their differences and attempt to reach a joint decision on their common concerns. Negotiation requires participants to identify issues about which they differ, educate each other about their needs and interests, generate ossible settlement options and bargain over the terms of the final agreement. Successful negotiations generally result in some kind of exchange or promise being made by the negotiators to each other. The exchange may be tangible (such as money, a commitment of time or a particular behavior) or intangible (such as an agreement to change an attitude or expectation, or make an apology). Negotiation is the principal way that people redefine an old relationship that is not working to thei r satisfaction or establish a new relationship where none existed before. Because negotiation is such a common problem-solving process, it is in everyone's interest to become familiar with negotiating dynamics and skills. This section is designed to introduce basic concepts of negotiation and to present procedures and strategies that generally produce more efficient and productive problem solving. CONDITIONS FOR NEGOTIATION A variety of conditions can affect the success or failure of negotiations. The following conditions make success in negotiations more likely. Identifiable parties who are willing to participate. The people or groups who have a stake in the outcome must be identifiable and willing to sit down at the bargaining table if productive negotiations are to occur. If a critical party is either absent or is not willing to commit to good faith bargaining, the potential for agreement will decline. Interdependence. For productive negotiations to occur, the participants must be dependent upon each other to have their needs met or interests satisfied. The participants need either each other's assistance or restraint from negative action for their interests to be satisfied. If one party can get his/her needs met without the cooperation of the other, there will be little impetus to negotiate. Readiness to negotiate. People must be ready to negotiate for dialogue to begin. When participants are not psychologically prepared to talk with the other parties, when adequate information is not available, or when a negotiation strategy has not been prepared, people may be reluctant to begin the process. Means of influence or leverage. For people to reach an agreement over issues about which they disagree, they must have some means to influence the attitudes and/or behavior of other negotiators. Often influence is seen as the power to threaten or inflict pain or undesirable costs, but this is only one way to encourage another to change. Asking thought-provoking questions, providing needed information, seeking the advice of experts, appealing to influential associates of a party, exercising legitimate authority or providing rewards are all means of exerting influence in negotiations. Agreement on some issues and interests. People must be able to agree upon some common issues and interests for progress to be made in negotiations. Generally, participants will have some issues and interests in common and others that are of concern to only one party. The number and importance of the common issues and interests influence whether negotiations occur and whether they terminate in agreement. Parties must have enough issues and interests in common to commit themselves to a joint decision-making process. Will to settle. For negotiations to succeed, participants have to want to settle. If continuing a conflict is more important than settlement, then negotiations are doomed to failure. Often parties want to keep conflicts going to preserve a relationship (a negative one may be better than no relationship at all), to mobilize public opinion or support in their favor, or because the conflict relationship gives meaning to their life. These factors promote continued division and work against settlement. The negative consequences of not settling must be more significant and greater than those of settling for an agreement to be reached. Unpredictability of outcome. People negotiate because they need something from another person. They also negotiate because the outcome of not negotiating is unpredictable. For example: If, by going to court, a person has a 50/50 chance of winning, s/he may decide to negotiate rather than take the risk of losing as a result of a judicial decision. Negotiation is more predictable than court because if negotiation is successful, the party will at least win something. Chances for a decisive and one-sided victory need to be unpredictable for parties to enter into negotiations. A sense of urgency and deadline. Negotiations generally occur when there is pressure or it is urgent to reach a decision. Urgency may be imposed by either external or internal time constraints or by potential negative or positive consequences to a negotiation outcome. External constraints include: court dates, imminent executive or administrative decisions, or predictable changes in the environment. Internal constraints may be artificial deadlines selected by a negotiator to enhance the motivation of another to settle. For negotiations to be successful, the participants must jointly feel a sense of urgency and be aware that they are vulnerable to adverse action or loss of benefits if a timely decision is not reached. If procras- tination is advantageous to one side, negotiations are less likely to occur, and, if they do, there is less impetus to settle. No major psychological barriers to settlement. Strong expressed or unexpressed feelings about another party can sharply affect a person's psychological readiness to bargain. Psychological barriers to settlement must be lowered if successful negotiations are to occur. Issues must be negotiable. For successful negotiation to occur, negotiators must believe that there are acceptable settlement options that are possible as a result of participation in the process. If it appears that negotiations will have only win/lose settlement possibilities and that a party's needs will not be met as a result of participation, parties will be reluctant to enter into dialogue. The people must have the authority to decide. For a successful outcome, participants must have the authority to make a decision. If they do not have a legitimate and recognized right to decide, or if a clear ratification process has not been established, negotiations will be limited to an information exchange between the parties. A willingness to compromise. Not all negotiations require compromise. On occasion, an agreement can be reached which meets all the participants' needs and does not require a sacrifice on any party's part. However, in other disputes, compromise–willingness to have less than 100 percent of needs or interests satisfied–may be necessary for the parties to reach a satisfactory conclusion. Where the physical division of assets, strong values or principles preclude compromise, negotiations are not possible. The agreement must be reasonable and implementable. Some settlements may be substantively acceptable but may be impossible to implement. Participants in negotiations must be able to establish a realistic and workable plan to carry out their agreement if the final settlement is to be acceptable and hold over time. External factors favorable to settlement. Often factors external to negotiations inhibit or encourage settlement. Views of associates or friends, the political climate of public opinion or economic conditions may foster agreement or continued turmoil. Some external conditions can be managed by negotiators while others cannot. Favorable external conditions for settlement should be developed whenever possible. Resources to negotiate. Participants in negotiations must have the interpersonal skills necessary for bargaining and, where appropriate, the money and time to engage fully in dialogue procedures. Inadequate or unequal resources may block the initiation of negotiations or hinder settlement. WHY PARTIES CHOOSE TO NEGOTIATE The list of reasons for choosing to negotiate is long. Some of the most common reasons are to: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gain recognition of either issues or parties; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Test the strength of other parties; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obtain information about issues, interests and positions of other parties;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate all sides about a particular view of an issue or concern; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ventilate emotions about issues or people; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Change perceptions; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mobilize public support; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Buy time; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bring about a desired c hange in a relationship; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Develop new procedures for handling problems; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make substantive gains; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Solve a problem. WHY PARTIES REFUSE TO NEGOTIATE Even when many of the preconditions for negotiation are present, parties often choose not to negotiate. Their reasons may include: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Negotiating confers sense and legitimacy to an adversary, their goals and needs;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties are fearful of being perceived as weak by a constituency, by their adversary or by the public; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Discussions are premature. There may be other alternatives available–informal communications, small private meetings, policy revision, decree, elections; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Meeting could provide false hope to an adversary or to one's own constituency; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Meeting could increase the visibility of the dispute; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Negotiating could intensify the dispute; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties lack confidence in the process; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is a lack of jurisdictional authority;   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Authoritative powers are unavailable or reluctant to meet; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Meeting is too time-consuming; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties need additional time to prepare; †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties want to avoid locking themselves into a position; there is still time to escalate demands and to intensify conflict to their advantage. DEFINITIONS For negotiations to result in positive benefits for all sides, the negotiator must define what the problem is and what each party wants. In defining the goals of negotiation, it is important to dis tinguish between issues, positions, interests and settlement options.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  An  issue is a matter or question parties disagree about. Issues can usually be stated as problems. For example, â€Å"How can wetlands be preserved while allowing some industrial or residential development near a stream or marsh? † Issues may be substantive (related to money, time or compensation), procedural (concerning the way a dispute is handled), or psychological (related to the effect of a proposed action). †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Positions are statements by a party about how an issue can or should be handled or resolved; or a proposal for a particular solution. A disputant selects a position because it satisfies a particular interest or meets a set of needs. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Interests are specific needs, conditions or gains that a party must have met in an agreement for it to be considered satisfactory. Interests may refer to content, to specific procedural considerations or to psychological needs. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Settlement Options–possible solutions which address one or more party's interests. The presence of options implies that there is more than one way to satisfy interests. SELECTING A GENERAL NEGOTIATION APPROACH The negotiator will need to select a general negotiation approach. There are many techniques, but the two most common approaches to negotiation are positional bargaining and interest-based bargaining. Positional Bargaining Positional bargaining is a negotiation strategy in which a series of positions, alternative solutions that meet particular interests or needs, are selected by a negotiator, ordered sequentially according to preferred outcomes and presented to another party in an effort to reach agreement. The first or opening position represents that maximum gain hoped for or expected in the negotiations. Each subsequent position demands less of an opponent and results in fewer benefits for the person advocating it. Agreement is reached when the negotiators' positions converge and they reach an acceptable settlement range. WHEN IS POSITIONAL BARGAINING OFTEN USED? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the resource being negotiated is limited (time, money, psychological benefits, etc. ). †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When a party wants to maximize his/her share in a fixed sum pay off. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the interests of the parties are not interdependent, are contradictory or are mutually exclusive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When current or future relationships have a lower priority than immediate substantive gains. ATTITUDES OF POSITIONAL BARGAINERS †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Resource is limited. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Other negotiator is an opponent; be hard on him/her. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Win for one means a loss for the other . †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Goal is to win as much as possible. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Concessions are a sign of weakness. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is a right solution–mine. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Be on the offensive at all times. HOW IS POSITIONAL BARGAINING CONDUCTED? 1. Set your target point–solution that would meet all your interests and result in complete success for you. To set the target point, consider: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your highest estimate of what is needed. (What are your interests? ) †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your most optimistic assumption of what is possible. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your most favorable assessment of your bargaining skill. 2. Make target point into opening position. 3. Set your bottom line or resistance point–the solution that is the least you are willing to accept and still reach agreement. To identify your bottom line, consider: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your lowest estimate of what is needed and would still be acceptable to you. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your least optimistic assumption of what is possible.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your least favorable assessment of your bargaining skill relative to other negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Your  Best  Alternative To a  Negotiated  Agreement (BATNA). 4. Consider possible targets and bottom lines of other negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Why do they set their targets and bottom lines at these points? What interests or needs do these positions satisfy? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Are your needs or interests and those of the other party mutually exclusive? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Will gains and losses have to be shared to reach agreement or can you settle with both receiving significant gains? . Consider a range of positions between your target point and bottom line. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each subsequent position after the target point offers more concessions to the other negotiator(s), but is still satisfactory to you. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consider having the following positions for each issue in dispute: Opening position. Secondary position. Subsequent position. Fallback position–(yellow light that indicates you are close to bottom line; parties who want to mediate should stop here so that the intermediary has something to work with). Bottom line. 6. Decide if any of your positions meets the interests or needs of the other negotiators. How should your position be modified to do so? 7. Decide when you will move from one position to another. 8. Order the issues to be negotiated into a logical (and beneficial) sequence. 9. Open with an easy issue. 10. Open with a position close to your target point. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate the other negotiator(s) why you need your solution and why your expectations are high. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate them as to why they must raise or lower their expectations. 11. Allow other side to explain their opening position. 12. If appropriate, move to other positions that offer other negotiator(s) more benefits. 13. Look for a settlement or bargaining range — spectrum of possible settlement alternatives any one of which is preferable to impasse or no settlement. 14. Compromise on benefits and losses where appropriate. a = Party A's resistance point b = Party A's target c = Acceptable options for Party A x = Party B's target y = Party B's resistance point z = Acceptable options for Party B 15. Look for how positions can be modified to meet all negotiators' interests. 16. Formalize agreements in writing. CHARACTERISTIC BEHAVIORS OF POSITIONAL BARGAINERS †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Initial large demand–high or large opening position used to educate other parties about what is desired or to identify how far they will have to move to reach an acceptable settlement range. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Low level of disclosure–secretive and non-trusting behavior to hide what the settlement range and bottom line are. Goal is to increase benefits at expense of other. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bluffing–strategy used to make negotiator grant concessions based on misinformation about the desires, strengths or costs of another.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Threats–strategy used to increase costs to another if agreement is not reached. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Incremental concessions–small benefits awarded so as to gradually cause convergence between negotiators' positions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Hard on people and problem–often other negoti ator is degraded in the process of hard bargaining over substance. This is a common behavior that is not necessarily a quality of or desirable behavior in positional bargaining. COSTS AND BENEFITS OF POSITIONAL BARGAINING Costs †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Often damages relationships; inherently polarizing (my way, your way) †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cuts off option exploration. Often prevents tailor-made solutions †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Promotes rigid adherence to positions †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obscures a focus on interests by premature commitment to specific solutions †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Produces compromise when better solutions may be available Benefits †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  May prevent premature concessions †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Is useful in dividing or compromising on the distribution of fixed-sum resources †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Does not require trust to work †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Does not require full disclosure of privileged information Interest-Based Bargaining Interest-based bargaining involves parties in a collaborative effort to jointly meet each other's needs and satisfy mutual interests. Rather than moving from positions to counter positions to a compromise settlement, negotiators pursuing an interest-based bargaining approach attempt to identify their interests or needs and those of other parties  prior to developing specific solutions. After the interests are identified, the negotiators jointly search for a variety of settlement options that might satisfy all interests, rather than argue for any single position. The parties select a solution from these jointly generated options. This approach to negotiation is frequently called integrated bargaining because of its emphasis on cooperation, meeting mutual needs, and the efforts by the parties to expand the bargaining options so that a wiser decision, with more benefits to all, can be achieved. WHEN IS INTEREST-BASED BARGAINING USED? †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When the interests of the negotiators are interdependent. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When it is not clear whether the issue being negotiated is fixed-sum (even if the outcome is fixed-sum, the process can be used).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When future relationships are a high priority. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When negotiators want to establish cooperative problem-solving rather than competitive procedures to resolve their differences. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When negotiators want to tailor a solution to specific needs or interests. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When a compromise of principles is unacceptable. ATTITUDES OF INTEREST-BASED BARGAINERS †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Resource is seen as not limited. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  All negotiators' interests must be addressed for an agreement to be reached. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Focus on interests not positions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties look for objective or fair standards that all can agree to.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Belief that there are probably multiple satisfactory solutions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Negotiators are cooperative problem-solvers rather than opponents. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  People and issues are separate. Respect people, bargain hard on interests. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Search for win/win solutions. HOW TO DO INTEREST-BASED BARGAINING Interests are needs that a negotiator wants satisfied or met. There are three types of interests: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Substantive interests–content needs (money, time, goods or resources, etc. ) †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Procedural interests–needs for specific types of behavior or the â€Å"way that something is done. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Relationship or psychological interests–needs that refer to how one feels, how one is treated or conditions for ongoing relationship. 1. Identify the substantive, procedural and relationship interest/needs that you expect to be satisfied as a result of negotiations. Be clear on: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Why the needs are important to you. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  How important the needs are to you. 2. Speculate on the substantive, procedural and relationship interests that might be important to the other negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess why the needs are important to them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess how important the needs are to them. 3. Begin negotiations by ed ucating each other about your respective interests. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Be specific as to why interests are important. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If other negotiators present positions, translate them into terms of interest. Do not allow other negotiators to commit to a particular solution or position. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make sure all interests are understood. 4. Frame the problem in a way that it is solvable by a win/win solution. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Remove egocentricity by framing problem in a manner that all can accept. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Include basic interests of all parties.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make the framing congruent with the size of the problem to be addressed. 5. Identify general criteria that must be present in an acceptable settlement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Look for general agreements in principle. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify acceptable objective criteria that will be used to rea ch more specific agreements. 6. Generate multiple options for settlement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Present multiple proposals. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make frequent proposals. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Vary the content. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make package proposals that link solutions to satisfy interests. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make sure that more than two options are on the table at any given time. . Utilize integrative option generating techniques: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Expand-the-pie–ways that more resources or options can be brought to bear on the problem. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alternating satisfaction–each negotiator gets 100 percent of what s/he wants, but at different times. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Trade-offs–exchanges of concessions on issues of differing importance to the negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consider two or more agenda items simultaneously. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Negotiators trade concessions on issues of higher or lower importance to each. Each negotiator gets his/her way on one issue.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Integrative solutions–look for solutions that involve maximum gains and few or no losses for both parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Set your sights high on finding a win/win solution. 8. Separate the option generation process from the evaluation process. 9. Work toward agreement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use the Agreement-in-Principle Process (general level of agreements moving toward more specific agreements). †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fractionate (break into small pieces) the problem and use a Building-Block Process (agreements on smaller issues that. when combined, form a general agreement). Reduce the threat level.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate and be educated about interests of all parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assure that all interests will be respected and viewed as legitimate. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Show an interest in their needs. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Do not exploit another negotiator's weakness. Demonstrate trust †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Put yourself in a â€Å"one down position† to other on issues where you risk a small, but symbolic loss. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Start with a problem solving rather than competitive approach. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Provide benefits above and beyond the call of duty. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Listen and convey to other negotiators that they have been heard and understood. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Listen and restate content to demonstrate understanding.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Listen and restate feelings to demonstrate acceptance (not necessarily agreement) and understanding of intensity. 10. Identify areas of agreement, restate them, and write them down. COSTS AND BENEFITS OF INTEREST-BASED BARGAINING Costs †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Requires some trust †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Requires negotiators to disclose information and interests †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     May uncover extremely divergent values or interests Benefits †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Produces solutions that meet specific interests †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Builds relationships †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Promotes trust †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Models cooperative behavior that may be valuable in future. AN INTEGRATED APPROACH Naturally, all negotiations involve some positional bargaining and some interest-based bargaining, but each session may be characterized by a predominance of one approach or the other. Negotiators who take a positional bargaining approach will generally use interest-based bargaining only during the final stages of negotiations. When interest-based bargaining is used throughout negotiations it often produces wiser decisions in a shorter amount of time with less incidence of adversarial behavior. DYNAMICS OF NEGOTIATION Examining the approaches to negotiation only gives us a static view of what is normally a dynamic process of change. Let us now look at the stages of negotiation most bargaining sessions follow. Negotiators have developed many schemes to describe the sequential development of negotiations. Some of them are descriptive–detailing the progress made in each stage–while others are prescriptive–suggesting what a negotiator should do. We prefer a twelve-stage process that combines the two approaches. STAGES OF NEGOTIATION Stage 1:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Evaluate and Select a Strategy to Guide Problem Solving †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess various approaches or procedures–negotiation, facilitation, mediation, arbitration, court, etc. –available for problem solving.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Select an approach. Stage 2: Make Contact with Other Party or Parties †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make initial contact(s) in person, by telephone, or by mail. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Explain your desire to negotiate and coordinate approaches. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Build rap port and expand relationship †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Build personal or organization's credibility. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Promote commitment to the procedure. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Educate and obtain input from the parties about the process that is to be used. Stage 3: Collect and Analyze Background Information †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Collect and analyze relevant data about the people, dynamics and substance involved in the problem.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Verify accuracy of data. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Minimize the impact of inaccurate or unavailable data. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify all parties' substantive, procedural and psychological interests. Stage 4: Design a Detailed Plan for Negotiation †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify strategies and tactics that will enable the parties to move toward agreement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify tactics to respond to situations peculiar to the specific issues to be negotiated. Stage 5: Build Trust and Cooperation †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prepare psychologically to participate in negotiations on substantive issues. Develop a strategy to handle strong emotions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Check perceptions and minimize effects of stereotypes. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Build recognition of the legitimacy of the parties and issues. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Build trust. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Clarify communications. Stage 6: Beginning the Negotiation Session †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Introduce all parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Exchange statements which demonstrate willingness to listen, share ideas, show openness to reason and demonstrate desire to bargain in good faith. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Establish guidelines for behavior. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  State mutual expectations for the negotiations. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Describe history of problem and explain w hy there is a need for change or agreement.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify interests and/or positions. Stage 7: Define Issues and Set an Agenda †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Together identify broad topic areas of concern to people. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify specific issues to be discussed. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Frame issues in a non-judgmental neutral manner. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Obtain an agreement on issues to be discussed. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Determine the sequence to discuss issues. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Start with an issue in which there is high investment on the part of all participants, where there is not serious disagreement and where there is a strong likelihood of agreement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Take turns describing how you see the situation. Participants should be encouraged to tell their story in enough detail that all people understand the viewpoint presented. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use active listening, open-ended questions and focusing questions to gain additional information. Stage 8: Uncover Hidden Interests †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Probe each issue either one at a time or together to identify interests, needs and concerns of the principal participants in the dispute. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Define and elaborate interests so that all participants understand the needs of others as well as their own. Stage 9: Generate Options for Settlement   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Develop an awareness about the need for options from which to select or create the final settlement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Review needs of parties which relate to the issue. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Generate criteria or objective standards that can guide settlement discussions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Look for agreements in pr inciple. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Consider breaking issue into smaller, more manageable issues and generating solutions for sub-issues. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Generate options either individually or through joint discussions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use one or more of the following procedures: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Expand the pie so that benefits are increased for all parties.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alternate satisfaction so that each party has his/her interests satisfied but at different times. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Trade items that are valued differently by parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Look for integrative or win/win options. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Brainstorm. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use trial and error generation of multiple solutions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Try silent generation in which each individual develops privately a list of options and then presents his/her ideas to other negotiators. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Use a caucus to develop op tions. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Conduct position/counter position option generation. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Separate generation of possible solutions from evaluation. Stage 10: Assess Options for Settlement †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Review the interests of the parties. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess how interests can be met by available options. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Assess the costs and benefits of selecting options. Stage 11: Final Bargaining †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Final problem solving occurs when: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the alternatives is selected. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Incremental concessions are made and parties move closer together. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Alternatives are combined or tailored into a superior solution. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Package settlements are developed. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Parties establish a procedural means to reach a substantive agreement. Stage 12: Achieving Formal Settlement   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Agreement may be a written memorandum of understanding or a legal contract. Detail how settlement is to be implemented–who, what, where, when, how–a nd write it into the agreement. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Identify â€Å"what ifs† and conduct problem solving to overcome blocks. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Establish an evaluation and monitoring procedure. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Formalize the settlement and create enforcement and commitment mechanisms: Legal contract †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Performance bond †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Judicial review †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Administrative/executive approval Pre-Mediation Planning Before going into mediation, consider all of the possibilities. What risks do you face? What to you have to gain? What are the major â€Å"deal points† which will make or break the negotiation for you? In the field of mediation, the process of evaluating your case or position may be called BATNA and WATNA analysis. BATNA stands for Best Alternative To Negotiated Agreement. In other words, if the mediation does not produce a settlement or other type of agreement, what is the best thing that could happen? Will the other side ultimately give in to your side? Will a new law cause things to come out in your favor? Will the other side lose interest in their position? Will your costs/risks be negligible? Are you confident about winning in court? These are the kinds of question you may ask yourself while evaluating your BATNA. WATNA stands for Worst Alternative to Negotiated Agreement. A couple of questions you may ask for this analysis are: Will the other side probably win in court? Who controls the status quo? If the case doesn’t settle, am I the one who will ultimately lose? The process of BATNA/WATNA analysis ultimately assists a party in determining the scope of their mediation efforts and their reservation point. Put another way, at what point will the party walk away from the table? When is it too risky not to settle, or too costly not to settle? Without a clear picture of these risk possibilities, it is extremely difficult to reasonably evaluate your case. A good mediator will also assist you in this analysis, but it’s better to be prepared and knowledgeable before entering negotiations. You will appear more confident and credible in your claims. Opening Offers and Demands Great debate rages in the negotiation field over whether or not to throw out the first offer. Some experts advise never, ever to make a first offer. Others cautiously advocate making a first offer if it serves your position. Whether you decide to make a first offer may depend upon your particular bargaining style. Be aware, however, that making a first offer sends a powerful signal to the other party. First, it has the potential to errode your credibility. If your offer or demand does not pass the â€Å"straight-face† test, your credibility may be on slippery slope. Be careful that your offer or demand isn’t so absurd as to make your statements and assertions throughout the rest of the negotiation unbelievable. Opening offers and demands are also powerful because they tell the other side roughly what your evaluation of the case is. It can therefore have the effect of shifting or anchoring the other party’s expectations to the range you have requested or offered. The party may then respond to the offer/demand by adjusting or reevaluating the number they originally had in mind. Alternatively, if your offer/demand is outside of their anticipated range, it can provoke anger, incredulity or an equally unreasonable or absurd counter-offer. Bottom-Lines: If you have a bottom-line number, guard it until the right moment. If you give it out too early, it can destroy the flexibility of the bargaining process. This occurs because parties often settle upon a number that wasn’t anticipated. By revealing a hard number too early, it cements you into a position that is much more difficult to negotiate from. It also takes away the possibily of â€Å"gift-giving† which we will discuss later. The most fundamental rule of bottom-lines, however, is to tell the truth. Don’t state a false bottom line, only to change it later to suit your negotiating needs. Doing so will ruin your credibility and decrease your leverage and bargaining power. If you are asked for a bottom-line and are not ready to give it, you may politely say that you have a number in mind but would like to engage in further discussion to learn as much as possible about all aspects of the dispute before making a final decision. Strategies and Techniques Bargaining Styles Below is a chart describing different bargaining styles. Which category do you fit into? Soft [Cooperative] Hard [Competitive] Principled Participants are friends. Participants are adversaries. Participantsare problem-solvers. The goal is agreement. The goal is victory. The goal is a wise outcome reached efficiently and amicably. Make concessions to cultivate the relationship. Demand concessions as a condition of therelationship. Separate the people from the problem. Be soft on the people and the problem. Be hard on the problem and the people. Be soft on the people; hard on the problem. Trust others. Distrust others. Proceed Independent of trust. Change your position easily. Dig in to your position. Focus on interest, not positions. Make offers. Make threats. Explore interests. Disclose your bottom line. Mislead as to your bottom line. Avoid having a bottom line. Accept one-sided losses to reach agreement. Demand one-sided gains as the price of agreement. Invent options for mutual gain. Search for the single answer; the one they will accept. Search for the single answer; the one you will accept. Develop multiple options to choose from; decide later. Insist on agreement. Insist on your position. Insist on using objective criteria. Try to avoid a contest of will. Try to win a contest of will. Try to reach a result based on standards independent of will. Yield to pressure. Apply pressure. Reason and be open to reasons; yeild to principle, not pressure. SPECIAL NOTES ON HARD-BARGAINERS: When encountering hard-bargainers, negotiation can be tricky. Difficulties arise because granting concessions makes the other side feel bullied, but sticking to principles can create an impasse of negotiation. Here are a few tips for dealing with hard bargainers: * Don’t attack the position, look behind it for interests and motivations * Don’t defend your position or statements, instead, invite criticism and suggestions * Don’t react, pause or relax * Don’t argue back – listen carefully and calmly * Reframe accusations as an assault on the problem itself * Ask productive questions Hard bargaining can arise in certain circumstances as well. Unreasonable initial demands, lack of meaningful information, greediness, positional bargaining, and threats can all cause a competitive bargaining environment to emerge. Leverage Leverage is an adversarial concept which allows a party to exert pressure on the other side by appealing to his/her fears, risks or needs. For example, if a party must have a certain dispute resolved by a certain date, withholding a resolution, walking away from the table, or delaying progress exerts pressure on that party to give in to the demands of the other side. Using threats is also a form of leverage. Threat must be used carefully so as not to enrage the other side such that they refuse to participate in continuing discussion. Research indicates that the efficacy of threats depends on their credibility, immediacy, context, specificity and equity. Another form of leverage is â€Å"ego stroking. † For some people, being recognized or acknowledged in a positive way can cause incredible shifts in perspective. Such a party may be more willing to negotiate, may be more generous, or may overlook past transgressions. Be sure that any appreciation for the other side that you convey is sincere. Sometimes, using positive-side leverage such as ego stroking can arouse an eagerness in the other party to reciprocate the sentiment or to seek to please you by offering concessions. The Origin of Brilliant (and not so brilliant) Ideas A great way to apply positive leverage while seizing advantageous settlement opportunities is to give credit to the other side for discovering a solution or for presenting a good idea. Instead of saying, â€Å"I want X dollars to replace my damaged roof† say, â€Å"A little while ago, you presented a very clear picture of the problem and it helped me to understand the issue of the roof better. I would like to hear more of your ideas about how we can approach that particular aspect of this negotiation. † In other words, create for the other party a positive reputation, even if you believe it is undeserved in your particular scenario, that they can then attempt to live up to. Conversely, when a party makes a tactical mistake which doesn’t help your position, but does threaten further progress, give them an easy opportunity to save face. For example, â€Å"If I’m not mistaken, I think I heard you say you wanted $3 billion for your broken fence. I know there are a lot of numbers being exchanged here and I have become confused myself a couple of times with the amount of data. Would you like to review that figure and potentially make an adjustment at some point? † Be sure to avoid enouraging or doing anything which could result in face-saving-behaviors. Face-saving behaviors are defensive attempts to re-establish face after threats to face or so-called â€Å"face-loss†. People are often willing and even eager to retaliate and sacrifice rewards at great cost when they perceive the threat of humiliation. By engaging in such behavior you are, at best, reducing the predictability of the outcome, and at worst, creating a hostile and perilous environment which could cost you and the other party a mutually agreeable settlement while augmenting the costs of dispute resolution. The Sometime-Appeal of High Concepts With some negotiators, it is possible to paint a bigger picture which extends beyond the limits of present issues. By appealing, for example, to a person’s sense of idealism or a particular world-view, it is sometimes possible to break a deadlocked negotiation. However, just as high concepts can broaden the mind of a stubborn participant, a carelessly made plea to a person’s sense of justice can provoke indignation and encourage increasing inflexibility. For example, a negotiator might say, â€Å"If we are able to come to a settlement today regarding the teacher’s union, the students can return to school much sooner and resume their studies, which is, of course, what we all want. † However, some negotiators may interpret such a statement as disingenuous, or mocking. So be careful! Reciprocal Bargaining Some negotiation experts contend that a reciprocal bargaining strategy promotes responsibility, accountability, and reasonable dealings. Reciprocal Bargaining theory basically holds that if one party makes an unreasonable demand or offer, the other side must do the same, back to that party. The result is, theoretically, that each side will then see and appreciate the consequences of their own behavior throughout the negotiation. Alternatively, if one party demonstrates generosity or uncommon honesty, the other side should reciprocate that behavior as well. The relationship-building potential of this strategy has been touted by many mediation experts as an effective way to facilitate productive conversation. Alternatively, this strategy can be counter-productive if the parties do not respond appropriately to the consequences. This can occur where parties are emotionally involved in the proceedings, when personal relationships are the actual subject of dispute or when the negotiation involves more than one â€Å"hard-bargainer†. In these scenarios, a reciprocal strategy can create a downward sprial of bad behavior which ultimately causes negotions to break down completely. GENEROUS RECIPROCAL BARGAINING THEORY: An alternative stragegy is to employ a downward-spiral breaking strategy known as generous reciprocal bargaining. This reciprocal strategy does not work in the systematic framework of the standard reciprocal bargaining. Instead, the parties reciprocate positive and negative behavior only the majority of the time. At irregular intervals, a party using this strategy will unexpectedly not reciprocate a negative behavior committed by the other party. This behavior breaks the vicious cycle of negative behavior and can allow for positive behavior changes in both parties, leaving them open to more productive communication exchanges and opportunities for mutual agreement. Gift Giving Giving gifts during negotiation is a great way to generate goodwill, especially at the initiation of bargaining. Small concessions will leave a strong impression with the other side’s perception of you, and may influence their actions going forward. Small concessions are a low cost method of initiating momentum in negotiations. By the way, one of the easiest and cheapest concessions you can grant to the other side is to listen to them, carefully, openly, and without judgment. Complaining Some experts advise mediation participants to refrain from complaining. However, our position is that complaints can be useful to the extent that they can generate empathy and produce increased willingness to exhibit flexibility from the other side. If reasonable and genuine complaints are made carefully, are well-timed, are not excessively accusatory and do not occur with too much regularity, they can prove useful in the context of negotiation. Positions vs. Interests As we viewed in the bargaining styles chart, people negotiate in different ways, and with different results. A major problem in many mediations is that participants become committed to their positions, that is, the result they are aiming for. This tactic, (or tactical error) causes inflexibility and generates ill-will. Mediators attempt to separate the interests from the positions. That is, the mediator seeks to learn what the actual issues that drive the mediation are. By separating out the interests an objective approach to resolving the dispute becomes possible and solutions become more clearly visible. For futher illustration, please view this chart: PROBLEM: The immediate source of conflict. INTERPRETATION: How people interpret the other party’s behavior. POSITION: Demands, threats, fixed solutions, proposals, or points of view. INTEREST: What really matters to this person. (Why is X a problem? )   Ã‚  Ã‚   ISSUE: The topic the parties need to discuss and decide. Barking dog. Neighbor is unfriendly, inconsiderate. Violates my privacy. Buy a muzzle. I’m not well. I need my sleep. Want my home to be a quiet, private place. How to control the barking at night. Unfair bill. This company wants to rip me off. They think I’m not smart enough to notice. I will not pay for work you didn’t even do. Want to be treated fairly. Need to know how much something is going to cost so I can budget for it. What work was done, what recompense is fair. How rest of job will be billed. As a negotiator, it is important to focus on your interests and to resist trying to control the outcome of the negotiation. In this way, you can more reasonably evaluate your risks, options and creative solutions along the way to a mutually agreeable solution. Additionally, it’s a good idea to focus on the interests of the other side. By understanding, and by demonstrating understanding of the other side’s interests, you will more easily command their attention and better understand the major deal points that will solve the dispute. Problems vs. People Similar to the above paragraph, mediators continually work to separate the people from the problems. This promotes a problem solving environment while reducing sniping, personal attacks and unreasonable and inflammatory statements. Be careful not to bargain over your positions. Instead, invent ptions for mutual gain, insist on using objective, evaluative criteria instead of accusatory statements. Although it’s hard to take, if another party insults you personally, ignore the attack and look behind it to discover the feelings and motivations of the accuser. You may learn valuable information about the party’s interests. To avoid inflaming the other party as well, a void accusatory statements, personal attacks, petty insults and counter-productive statements and questions such as: What do you want from me? Calm down! Be reasonable! What’s your problem? and You always†¦. or You never†¦.. Reframing Reframing is perhaps the most important part of negotiation. Reframing is the process of restating something the other side has said in a way that is mutually beneficial. Reframing signals to the other party that you have listened to their story and that you understand and appreciate it. This, in itself, is a type of concession, and it doesn’t cost you a thing! Reframing is an opportunity that presents itself at multiple stages of mediation. Instead of rejecting an offer, reframe it to convey your understanding as well as to present an opportunity to shift the focus or perspective on the topic. You might try saying â€Å"and† instead of â€Å"but† to effectively reject an offer while appearing open to further discussion and at the same time reframing the issue to your advantage. Also, it is a good idea to ask sincere questions instead of making demands whenever possible. Instead of pushing the other side to meet your demands, use reframing to bring them to your point of view. Instead of escalating an argument, use reframing to educate the other side about your feelings and interests. Above all, reframing places the negotiation in the context of cooperation instead of competition. Effective Listening This topic will be covered in-depth in the next unit. For now, let’s look at the most basic concepts of effective listening. Listening is a great skill of negotiation. Listening allows you to learn about the other side’s interests and to discover crucial dealpoints. Close listening also helps to generate goodwill with the other side. The value of â€Å"being heard† is greatly underestimated. Often, where emotions are involved, the opportunity to be heard and understood is very powerful. By listening carefully, you pave the ay to excellent reframing opportunities, greater leverage, and an improved bargaining position. Be sure to listen carefully and actively (while respecting the groundrules of the mediation), empathize with the other side, ask questions which convey your understanding and empathy, and finally, restate the other side’s story back to them while carefully respecting sensitive aspects of the account so that you do not infla me them. Deal Killers In every negotiation, the possibility of failure exists. Certain conditions, behaviors, or acts threaten to stall or break down negotiations. The more you know about these potential deal breakers, the better prepared you will be when you confront them, either on your own side, or across the table. 1. Reactive Devaluation 2. Parties tend to view offers by the other side skeptically. This leads to misevaluation of the other side’s position. Hidden Emotion Example: â€Å"I would rather lose than settle with this guy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  This leads to misevaluation. 3. Failure to Understand BATNA/WATNA: Leads to misevaluation. 4. Biased Assimilation: Parties tend to hear and remember things they want to hear, and not hear things that are unpleasant. This leads to misevaluation. 5. Loss Aversion: People generally prefer to avoid loss rather than to achieve gains. This leads to excessive attachment to positions. 6. Direct Contradiction: Avoid using language like, â€Å"You’re wrong. † Instead, offer a different perspective when it is your time to speak after validating the other party’s opinion. 7. Equity Seeking: Parties may seek to return to the â€Å"Status Quo Ante† – that is, the state they were in prior to when the particular conflict arose, or to recoup costs incurred in litigation or which have arisen from the conflict itself. In so doing, that party may prolong the dispute unnecessarily in an attempt to reach that pre-conflict status. 8. Attribution Error: Parties tend to see the other side as evil, and their own side as innocent. This leads to misevaluation. 9. Endowment: People tend to overvalue their own property and interests, and undervalue the property and interests of others. 10. Miscalculation or ignorance of Deal Breakers: Think about reasons why the other side might refuse to settle. Plan out graceful ways to provide counter arguments or methods of avoiding those deal breakers.