Closing Down the Oconomo Plant Essay

This plant is important to the society because it has created employment opportunities to local residents. However, the plant is in the verge of shut down. Jack Ripon , Chief Executive officer of Lamprey Inc. is concerned about higher cost of operation which has decreased profit for the company. The plan is to close down the Oconomo plant and establish a new plant in Mexico. Jack wants Jim Malesckowski, President of Wisconsin Speciality Products Division of Lamprey Inc. o find out about the operational costs of establishing a new plant in Mexico and submit the report to him. Jim thinks that the action to shut down the Oconomo plant might be wrong as long as there were chances to lower the costs. But he also thinks that Jack is right because all the avenues for decreasing costs at the plant have been closed. Besides money, there are other underlying factors that have led the management to bring some changes in the company. We will look at some of the forces that drive Oconomo plant to anticipate for change,changes that are required to be made, and the reasons why union leaders are reluctant to change. . What forces for change are evident at the Oconomo plant? The greatest force that drives the company to look for change is its high operational cost. The plant has so high operational costs that the company has been incurring losses instead of making profits. The management is anticipating changes so that the company will make profits in the future. In order for a company to run successfully, it should realize some returns from the investment made at the plant. Having invested in the company, shareholders also expect return for their investment. It is important for the company to make enough money for the satisfaction of shareholders and the existence of the company in the market. By any means, Lamprey Inc. should reduce its operational cost to withstand the fierce competition in the marketplace. For the compaby to make it in the market, it must change its working conditions so that they fit with the current market situations, (Daft & Marcic,2010). Another force that is evident for the change at the Oconomo plant is the uncooperative labor union. Workers have been consistently refusing to cooperate with the management. The company is planning to reduce the amount of pay it’s going to provide to workers. In order to decrease the labor cost, the company is proposing changes but the union leaders have turned a deaf ear to the management’s plan . It’s a great problem when workers are unwilling to listen to the management for possible solution. The situation will get even worse when the workers are not ready to accept the desired change of the company. Competition in the marketplace is also prominent force that is evident for change in this case. Lately, competitors have threatened Lamprey Inc. from the services and products that they are providing to the society. It has been a challenge for the company to manufacture the quality products and beat the competitor’s price. While the competiton is being fierce in the marketplace, Lamprey Inc. has been struggling to sustain the operations. If the same situation persists, the company would not have a way to exist in the market. 2. What is the primary type of change needed—changing â€Å"things† or changing the â€Å"people and culture? Can the Wisconsin plant be saved by changing things alone, by changing people and culture, or must both be changed? Explain your answer. Primary type of change required in this case is changing people and their culture. If people and their attitudes can be changed, work environment will be comfortable and other changes are easy to implement. The attitude of employees especially that of union leaders is not right in the given case. They are disobedient to the management. As long as employees don’t have respect for management, it is hard to bring any other changes. People’s culture is of great significance in the way the company operates because if the culture or people fit in the objectives of the company, rest of things will work accordingly. In changing anything with respect to company, people and culture should be considered at first. If the people working in the company are unhappy with the change, the objectives of change might not be fulfilled. In this particular case, employees are scared of change and in fact don’t let management bring any changes. Such culture is detrimental to the company. Culture should be established in such a way that people are ready to accept the change and welcome the efforts of the management with open heart. Although changing people and their culture is a primary thing, changing things is also important and should be considered for quality and workable plans of the company. Lamprey Inc. needs to bring some change in the products to save its position in the market. If the products are of low quality, the market share of Lamprey Inc. will be directed towards the competitors. In this case, the company has not put enough effort to upgrade the quality of the products. If the same situation persists, it will not be able to face the competition in the industry because competitors are developing quality products at affordable price. A company can’t operate on just a single type of change. It’s important to put into consideration both changes when designing any type of change in the company. In order to change the products, the entire team of the company should be ready and thus change is required in people of the company. To meet the objectives of the desired strategy, the company should take consideration on both types of changes.

Macroeconomics Case Assignment Essay

GDP: Questions: 1. Assume that consumer spending is $1,000, government expenditures are $300, investments by industry are $150, and the excess of exports over imports is $200. Compute the GDP. (Please show your work) The basic formula for calculating the GDP is: Y = C + I + E + G C=1000; I=150; E=200 and G=300 Y=1000+150+200+300=1650, Y=1650 2. If we are able to increase our domestic energy production, and that allows us to import less oil from foreign countries, briefly explain what will happen to the GDP. If Exports exceeds imports then it will add to the GDP but if imports are more than the exports it subtracts from the GDP. With this being said if we import less oil from foreign countries then it would positively impact the nation’s GDP. Inflation Questions: 1. If the CPI went from 100 to 104 during the past year, the rate of inflation, in percent, was? (Please show your work) Rate of inflation = (104 – 100)/100 x 100 = 4/100 x 100 = 4% 2. If the CPI went from 231 to 234 over the past year, the rate of inflation was? (Please show your work) Rate of inflation = (234 – 231)/231 x 100, = 3/231 x 100, = 1.30% Unemployment rate Questions: 1. Assume the entire civilian labor force is 20,000 people and the number of unemployed is 2,000 people. Compute the unemployment rate, in percent. (Please show your work) Unemployment Rate= 2000/20000 = 0.1 *100 = 10 Unemployment Rate=10% 2. Assume the entire civilian labor force is 20,000 people, the number of unemployed is 2,000 people but, 500 of the unemployed have now stopped looking for work. Compute the unemployment rate, in percent. (Please show your work) Unemployment Rate=1500/19500= 0.078 Unemployment Rate= 7.8% International Economic Trends 1. Compare the four countries in terms of Output and Growth (Real GDP). The analysis should only cover the period from the beginning of 2008 to the present, and make sure the most recent 2011 changes are addressed. The 2008 economic contraction affected the world economy. 2008 seen the housing market crash both here and in Japan. By 2009, Canada, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States all saw negative economic growth. Japan’s economy was hit the hardest with -10% growth in 2009 as demand for their products weakened. Canada was the last to fall into negative growth and experienced the least negative growth of the four countries. All experienced a partial recovery in 2010 as GDP came out of negative growth and each seen minimal growth. The global economic crisis, however, hit the country’s mainstay exports hard and brought on Japan’s worst recession since World War II, in late 2008. Since mid-2009, Japan has limped back into recovery, helped by exports and stronger capital investment. 2011 was looking up for the Japanese economy, relatively speaking, but the earthquake and tsunami in early March 2011 has put the economy in a tailspin with a large portion of the country affected not only by the devastation but the effects of the nuclear power plan leakage. Canada, the UK, and the U.S. appear to be going into the double dip recession as the economies in 2010 were making slow recovery, 2011 has seen more contraction. The monetary policies of all four countries have slowed the pace of the recession, but are going to be unable to fix the problems, because the national debt are so high, deficit are rising, and projections are not good. Monetary policy, keeping interest rates low and printing more money can only do so much; fiscal policies implementing stimulus packages have foreseeable failed and only added to national debts. 2. Compare the four countries with respect to Inflation and Prices (CPI). The analysis should only cover the period from the beginning of 2008 to the present, and make sure the most recent 2011 changes are addressed. As the economies of Japan, Canada, the UK, and the U.S. were entering the recession in 2008, prices and inflation had hit a high, but began to fall as the GDP fell. GDP and CPI are nearly identical images when looking at the graphs of each. Prices fell as the economy tanked because consumers clearly did not have the purchase power. As the economies of each country experienced positive growth rates, CPI began to rise. Inflation rate refers to a general rise in prices measured against a standard level of purchasing power. When comparing the four countries, Canada, UK and U.S. have experienced very similar changes in CPI, where Japan has remained relatively unchanged for 2011, but mimicked the others in 2008 and 2009. Inflation for 2011 in Canada, the UK and the U.S. is increasing. Some reports say peanut butter will see a 40% price increase in the next week, which may be due to a poor peanut growing season. According to the United States Department of Agriculture’s Consumer Price Index, all food increased 0.8 percent between 2009 and 2010 and is forecast to increase 3.5 to 4.5 percent in 2011. The increases in food prices affect the overall purchasing power of consumers, combined with inflation, consumers are not going to be able to purchase our way out of recession. 3. Compare the four countries regarding the Labor Market (Unemployment Rate). The analysis should only cover the period from the beginning of 2008 to the present, and make sure the most recent 2011 changes are addressed. Regarding the labor market, United States posted the most consistent rates of unemployment ranging from 1.9% to just about 3%. In stark contrast, Japan posted the most unpredictable figures in terms of unemployment percentages; 0.8% in 2008 to -9.8% in 2009.In 2011, Japan recorded a percentage change of about 2.0%. As is the case with the USA, UK’s rates never went below 1% during this period. The future of the labor market is therefore quite promising in the USA as compared to the other countries in this particular category. Questions: 1. Assume interest rates on Treasury bonds, with the indicated time to maturities as follows: 15 years = 7.72% 20 years = 8.72% 25 years = 9.64% 30 years = 10.18% The differences in rates among these bonds is caused by: (please briefly explain your choice) a. Tax effects b. Default risk premiums. (Default risk premium will cause the interest rates among the T bond with different time period with different rates) c. Maturity risk premiums d. A down sloping yield curve e. Liquidity risk premiums 2. Which statement is False? (Please briefly explain your choice) a. The default risk premium is applied to all bonds including U.S. Government ones. b. The liquidity premium requires that an asset can be sold both quickly and for fair market value. c. The inflation premium is added on to the required return to protect the purchasing power of an investors earnings. d. The market risk premium is added to all bonds, even U.S. Government ones. (Market risk premium will be the same for all investors since the value is based on what actually happened). 3. Over the next 3 years inflation is expected to be: Year one 2.5%, year two 3.5%, year three 4%. What should investors require for an inflation premium on a Treasury bond with a three-year maturity? (Please show your work) Inflation premium on year 3 = (2.5+3.5+4)/3 Inflation premium on year 3 = (10)/3 Inflation premium on year 3 = 3.33% 4 If the rate of inflation is expected to be 0% for the next 4 years will the yield curve have an upward slope? (Please briefly explain your answer) Yield to maturity = = Rf + DRP + LP + MRP + Inflation Premium Everything consistent Inflation premium = (2.5+3.5+4+0)/4 = 2.5 it reduces the 3.33 to 2.50 No it wont be upward it will be downward sloping if the rate is 0 in year four Reference: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marketriskpremium.asp#axzz1uEeDH1nd http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/Unemployment-Rate.topicArticleId-9789,articleId-9735.html http://inflationdata.com/inflation/inflation_articles/calculateinflation.asp http://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/inflation.asp#axzz1lAEXt7uC http://research.stlouisfed

The causes of drug abuse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The causes of drug abuse - Essay Example al abuse, and emotional abuse/neglect in childhood, is a significant risk factor for many psychiatric disorders later in life, such as substance abuse†(Wang et al., p.1). Bitter life experiences are the major motivating factor for drug abuse. It is not necessary that a person starts drug abuse immediately after he suffers a painful experience. In many cases, bitter childhood experiences such as sexual abuse, lack of parental care etc can generate drug abuse like antisocial behaviors later in the life of a person. Physical as well as psychological problems can cause drug abuse. People with chronic diseases such as cancer, HIV, etc quite often take shelter in drug abuse to forget about the physical and mental pain caused by their diseases. Strained relationships and destruction of love affairs or dating relationships can also cause drug abuse like behavioral problems. Some people believe that drug uses can stimulate sexual energy. People, who are sexually impotent, often try to make use of drugs to improve their sexual energy or capabilities. Narcotic drugs create good feelings. There is the initial euphoric sensation that comes with taking the drug, and then there is the secondary effect associated with the type of drug used. If it is a stimulant, the initial euphoria is followed by inflated feelings of self-confidence and abundant energy; if it is a depressant, then the initial euphoria is followed by satisfaction and relaxation† (Ho). Unemployment, poverty and lack of living standards etc are other reasons for drug abuse. Nobody likes to lead a life in poverty. Everybody wants to lead a lavish life. Failure to get proper employment or raising the living standard often generates frustrations in the minds of the people. These frustrations often lead them towards drug abuse like behaviors. Improper knowledge about certain medicines or drugs often causes drug abuse. For example, marijuana is a controversial drug because of the arguments in favor and against it

Control Room Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Control Room - Movie Review Example However, this movie, Control Rooms, reveal a different side to the facts, the film reveals the extent to which the staff and reporting crew of the Media network had gone to convey the truth behind the sugar-coated waged war against the innocent civilians of Iraq (Samuel-Azran 73-89). Thus, in my opinion, in spite of its sketchiness, the movie delivers the message of its theme explicitly and indirectly, that touches the very cords of the hearts of sensitive humans. 2. To what extent the documentary might change your perception on the war in Iraq? I agree to Ty Burr (2004) when he says, â€Å""Control Room" is like an open window that sucks the smog out of the room. Clear-sighted and fair-minded, sympathetic to everyone except Saddam Hussein and the topmost level of the US government, this modest yet necessary documentary digs into the tussle between bias and balance in modern journalism and sends you out debating where one side's reporting becomes the other side's distortion.† This movie has changed my perception of war in Iraq to a greater extent. Earlier I had taken this military act to be against a brutal and killing enemy who had a monster like image in my imagination. Never had I considered the people dying there to be humans. I had always regarded their execution as a winning ‘mission accomplished’. ... If US had to wage a war against Saddam Hussain, it must have had find another way. To kill millions of people in the name of execution of their tyrannical ruler is to add inflict on injury. These people were already suffering and the military invasion had destroyed whatever they had managed to save so far. Truly, I am impressed and affected by the reporting of Al-Jazeera now as â€Å"†¦the station has revealed (and continues to show the world) everything about the Iraq War that the Bush administration did not want it to see† (Varma, 2004) 3. Critically identify the strengths and weaknesses of the video. The video, Control Room, is no doubt a marvelous and daring act done by Noujaim. The movie reveals hidden truths and passion for reality that is shared by all the journalists with living conscience. She has focused the role of the Qatar based media network, Al-Jazeera, which had covered the gruesome details of the happenings in Iraq. This particular network had sent its co rrespondents in Baghdad and other areas where they had covered the live details of the bombarding and shelling on the innocent civilians for which US government had blamed it to be a pawn in the hands of propagandist lobby of Arabs. However, the video exclusively reveals the false facets of the media world and this particular aspect makes this movie strong and effective. Moreover, Noujaim has just offered details of what happens behind the camera in a news agency network. All the interviews are taken in a bias free and impartial manner and the conclusion is left to the watcher. She has not tried to force her own ideas on the people; she has just captured with her camera what she found. â€Å"In the spirit of welcoming all information, she refuses to draw conclusions--these are left to the

Designer babies should not be legalized Research Paper

Designer babies should not be legalized - Research Paper Example Literally, it implies selection of certain features that a parent wishes his or her child to have before preconception (Satoshi 90). The concept of selecting a given trait for a child originated from a technology known as preimplantation genetic diagnosis or PGD. Preimplantation genetic diagnosis remains as a technique employed on embryos got in In vitro Fertilization for screening for genetic diseases (Blazer 56). The technique commonly tests for genetic abnormality in embryos. Based on the results got from this screening test, parents often can be able to choose non-genetically diseased embryos to be implanted in the mother (Sean, Lyn & Tessa 80). In as much as medically the technology seems as advancement, the issue remains on its legality and whether it can be ethically accepted in the society (Sara 83). A number of ethicists often remain wondering on the given future of the technology. A war between conservatist and scientists has constantly been ongoing for centuries. In as muc h as scientists believe that the designer babies technology remains as a major step in the field of genetic engineering, quite a number of controversies and oppositions have arose because of that technology. Therefore, choosing the features of one’s own child should not be legalized due to a number of ethical issues revolving around it. In as much as the issue of designer babies seems to be a technological advancement in the world that could solve a number of problems that mankind has, but if people thought for a moment whether to legalize it or not, many would opt not to legalize it. A number of ethical issues have arisen over the past few years regarding the issue of designer babies in the society thereby leading to many people refusing the idea of legalizing the practice. The ethical issue behind not legalizing the practice of designer babies majorly falls on the use of its technologies, political, social and religious view. Parents being able to choose salient features fo r their children prenatally should not be legally accepted due to technological issues such as preimplantation genetic diagnosis and cloning used in the process of making designer babies (Zahedi & Bargher 88). There are often two types of moral or ethical questions that often get asked regarding designer babies (Sean 34). Often, the first question involves the specific technologies used in selecting or modifying the baby’s genetic makeup. Furthermore, the second question often focuses on the given idea of creating a designer baby (Sonia 55). For any medical technology introduced with a given aim, ethics and safety always play a key role in its enactment. Technological enhancements that prove to be detrimental to the lives of human beings often become not approved and therefore not legally acceptable. Genetically modified technology commonly began in animals like mice and plants and has been tested less on humans. In accordance to Wellman, he describes the method and technique of making such designer babies as straightforward while at the same time talks about it raising concerns on safety (34).Making of a designer baby sometimes begins with the creation of a given embryo via in vitro fertilizayion. It is then genetic engineers that then modify the given embryo’s DNA before introducing it in the womb (Joseph 33). In as much as technology often comes with dazzling procedure and expectation of perfect health, the main thing here is, are they safe being used on humans (Sonia 25). Some technological usage often employ humans as test subjects and try to oversee what will be the aftermath of their experiments (Sonia 15). Medically, they have been cases of experiments being conducted on humans

Human resource development in multinational companies Essay

Human resource development in multinational companies - Essay Example To cope up with the competition, they are required to plan and implement strategies to develop the company’s human resources. In today’s globalized environment, it has become difficult for the managers to completely eliminate the threats that globalization has brought. Multinational companies face many of such difficulties in acquiring efficient staff in other countries. Multinational companies aim to build up their brand name and reputation. They need to provide the same quality and facilities in every country they are working in. However, the human resources available in different countries bring different challenges for them. They need to develop a plan to accumulate a workforce which could perfectly carry out the job the company aims to achieve. The concept of repatriation and expatriation is also worth mentioning here as the human resource development program must consider these concepts. As an expatriate gets the assigned work done in the other country and moves b ack to the host country, he faces the adjustment problems all over again. A complete and viable HRD strategy must also take in to account these workers who are sent abroad while working permanently in some multinational organization. Objective: The aim of this paper is to identify the key challenges faced by senior managers in today’s globalized business environment in achieving competent human resources. The paper also focuses on the researches made in this regard. In addition it provides recommendations to lessen or eliminate the difficulties in human resource development and reduce the employee turnover rate in the organizations. The study is designed in such a manner that would help in achieving the objective successfully. In the first step it provides a brief introduction about multinational organizations and their place in today’s business world. In the next step it

Etruscan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Etruscan - Essay Example This paper also notes the important contributions of the Etruscans to the enhancement of the Roman culture. The Etruscans have complex burial ceremonies. This may mean that they had strong beliefs that a part of the soul remained with the body or the body is important for the life after death. They also performed cremation and ashes are kept in decorated urns. ("Mysterious Etruscans") As a sign of the Etruscans' strong belief about death, they decorated tombs and urns to make them look like huts or houses. By doing this, they believed that the lives of the dead would be prolonged ("Columbia Encyclopedia"). Aside from this, the Etruscans also used burial ceremonies as a common subject of their paintings and other art works. Experts observed that banquets are the usual theme in Etruscan art. They think that this may have double meaning since the banquet is a basic part of funerals. The Etruscan funeral ceremonies involved the festive banquet which included the relatives of the deceased. At this banquet, the Etruscans believed that the spirit of the one who died would attend. ("Mysterious Etruscans") Unlike most civilizations in the ancient times, gender inequality seemed to not have been very notable in the Etruscan culture (Hooker). ... They also raise all the babies that are born regardless of who the actual father is. ("Mysterious Etruscans") The Etruscans' attitude towards gender roles or the equality of men and women is manifested in their art. For instance, paintings featured lavish receptions wherein both men and women were entertained by musicians and dancers while being waited upon by servants. Other art forms also have both men and women as the main theme like the terra cotta sarcophagus lid figures of a man and woman, husband and wife, enjoying a leisurely moment together. ("Mysterious Etruscans") "Romanisation" of the Etruscans Etruria was attacked by Rome beginning 498 BCE and lasted until 264 BCE when Etruria was completely conquered. Unlike its other conquests, Rome was more considerate for the Etruscans. This may be attributed to the fact that the Roman civilization was substantially influenced by the Etruscan culture as would be discussed in the following section. ("Mysterious Etruscans") With the entry of the Roman conquerors, the Etruscan language and religion were gradually eroded. The long process of "romanisation" wiped the Etruscan culture off the ancient world. ("Mysterious Etruscans") Etruscans' Contribution to the Roman Culture As emphasized, the Etruscans have greatly influenced the Romans. In terms of art, the Etruscan art is mainly comprised of sculpture in clay and metal, fresco tomb painting and fine pottery exhibiting local elements and reflects Etruscan religious beliefs ("MSN Encarta"). This type of art was highly influential on the Roman Art ("Encyclopedia Britannica"). The Etruscans also inspired renowned artists like Alberto Giacometti with their

The Dani, Papua New Guinea Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The Dani, Papua New Guinea - Essay Example The irrigated land is provided freely for use by any member without prior payments or negotiations. Land ownership by an individual is rare since its vested in kins’ and only allocated in times of need. An individual may own the plantation but not the land. The heirs’ give the landowners gifts and offerings before using the land. Failure to do so will result in dispossession of the property by the landowners (Zimmer & Amakoshi, 2007). Based on Zimmer & Amakoshi (2007) horticulture is routine by cultivation of sweet potatoes in large fields of valley bounded by ditches. Plantation is carried out year round where every family possess a portion of the harvest. The ditches assist in drainage of water during wet seasons and deliverance of spring water during dry spells. Additionally, they also serve as mulching basins. The ditches further prevent unwanted pigs form the farms. Other staple foods include starchy vegetables like yams, rice, wild sago, taro and breadfruit; supplemented by bananas, wild greens, mangos and coconuts. Hunting is also practiced which provides meat from fowl, pigs, marsupials, cassowaries and turtles. Each household practice pig keeping. The pigs are only slaughtered and consumed during special occasions (Zimmer & Amakoshi, 2007). The community holds plenty of ceremonies and hence each Dani member receives pork every week. Domestication of pigs is highly significant that specific medical practices are carried out in order to assist them grow. The male pigs are castrated so as to control breeding and increase their sizes. Every Dani member participates in food production. However, the members cultivate their farms using manual labor whereby they incorporate inferior methods and technologies. Sweet potatoes are planted as monocrops in the irrigated fields whereby the soils are dug using sharp poles. Their harvest is enormous whereby it supports a population-density of more than 400/square mile (Zimmer & Amakoshi, 2007). The

Race & television Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Race & television - Essay Example Racism is tagged as humor to make it sound acceptable to the audience. Racial concepts are inculcated in our minds as a secondary outcome while the prime focus remains upon the comedy. On the other hand, real life racial interactions are much more hostile and obviously offensive in nature. Real life racial interactions include frequent use of abusive language and bullying, that is either physical or verbal or both. The fictional views projected on TV assume great tendency to influence our personal interactions. â€Å"Just as people can develop their views about others through dialogue and interaction with others in society, the same types of outcomes can emerge based simply on watching television† (Mastro, Behm-Morawitz, and Kopacz, 2008). In my childhood, I tried to maintain distance from my blonde class fellows because they were stereotyped as fools in certain cartoon series. Nevertheless, over the time, I have become more critical in my analysis of the validity of information provided about specific ethnicities and races on TV, which is why, I am not as influenced now as I used to be

Gendered Identity Consistent With the Public and Private Views of the Research Paper - 1

Gendered Identity Consistent With the Public and Private Views of the Roles of Men and Women - Research Paper Example Even scholars who disagree that such changes were for the better, such as Edward Pessen (1985) – who argues that the resulting national civil society and economy left over from the Jackson years was characterized by greater inequality than had been the case prior to Jackson’s term – admit that the changes that occurred during the period were deeply rooted and long lasting. Therefore, any attempt to fully understand the development of America’s societal history must take into account the changes that occurred during these years. This seems especially true when considering the notion of gendered identity of both males and females in the public and private spheres that have determined much of the history of the American family, educational, and societal life. Because Jackson’s presidency occurred during a time when the industrial and transportation revolutions were just beginning in the US, and were characterized by expansions and alterations of expect ations among the various classes that made up the American social, political, and economic scenes, the ways that men and women came to view their roles in American life during this early birth of modernization are important to review. This brief paper will consider how gendered identities came to be established among men and women during the Jacksonian period, in light of the other social, economic, and religious changes that occurred. Particular attention will be paid to the way that the emergence of class differences with the rise of industrialization influenced the views of men and women regarding their societal roles. The paper will present a definition of gendered identity consistent with the public and private views of the roles of men and women that existed at the time and will consider how that notion was developed alongside the various upheavals that characterize the Jacksonian period. When discussing issues of gender, it is important to point out that there are varying definitions and ideas surrounding the term, and that changes have occurred over time regarding what it means.  

The Impact of Substance Abuse on the Adolescent Population Essay Example for Free

The Impact of Substance Abuse on the Adolescent Population Essay Introduction Understanding the scope of drug use and addiction in the world includes knowing the prevalence among various populations and researching the many health and social consequences. The United States is both the largest producer of drug research in the world and the world’s only â€Å"drug-control superpower.† The simultaneous leadership in social science and world agenda setting is not the result of a symbiotic relationship between American research and policy making.During adolescence, friends and peers become far more influential than before, and intimate dating relationships become primary interests (Laursen Williams, 1997). Along with these important developmental changes, however, come increased risks of pregnancy, sexually transmitted disease, and abuse by and toward dating partners (Leaper Anderson, 1997). As well, alcohol and drug use and abuse enters the picture, which may contribute to the occurrence of the other risk behaviors (Milgram, 1993; National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999). Although some of these developments are harmless, there is a growing awareness of the importance of education and prevention to increase teens personal safety and responsibility. Not surprisingly, prominent adolescent risk behaviors are alcohol and drug abuse, unsafe sexual behavior, and dating violence-share many of the same contributing risk factors, although to important and differing degrees. These include problems related to the family, such as family conflict and violence, poor relationship attachment, early and persistent behavior problems, as well as peer and academic problems, such as school failure, peer rejection, and exposure to community violence. In addition to the above, teen pregnancy, early sexual intercourse, and risky sexual behaviors are associated with early onset of puberty, truancy, and delinquency (Kilpatrick, Acierno, Saunders, Resnick, Best, 2000). In the absence of compensatory factors, such as education and social competence, these varied risk factors can contribute to or become risk behaviors (e.g., alcohol use is associated with teen pregnancy and violence). Common Elements A common family element found among teens who engage in these high risk behaviors is the amount of time spent without proper adult involvement or supervision (Dishion, Capaldi, Spracklen, Li, 2005). Not surprisingly, children who grow up in caring and supportive homes are more likely to resist risky behaviors, while children who have grown up witnessing or experiencing alcohol abuse or violence in their homes, having poor family structure and insecure attachment-related experiences are more likely to be less resistant to these same risky, unhealthy behaviors. A description of the age, gender, and ethnic identities of youth who engage in high risk behavior is provided by the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance, which tracks data regarding many health risk behaviors for adolescents in the United States. According to this data, black youth, for example, report significantly higher rates of sexual intercourse before age 13 than do Whites and Hispanics, while White youth report the highest levels of forced sexual intercourse. Black youth also report less alcohol consumption at last sexual intercourse and higher condom use than do White and Hispanic youth. Not surprisingly, males report more alcohol use before the age of 13 than females, across all ethnic groups (YRBSS). However, these data on prevalence of self-reported adolescent risk behaviors is descriptive only, and tells little about the contextual factors contributing to such risk. While looking closer at some of the factors that may contribute to the mentioned risk behaviors, the one can see that alcohol use among teenagers remains prevalent in todays society. A national probability sample of 4,023 adolescents between the ages of 12 and 17 found that 15% of the sample used alcohol, 10% used marijuana, and 2% reported hard drug use in the past year (Kilpatrick et al. 2000). Although some alcohol consumption among adolescents is considered normative, there is great concern for the number of teens who are exhibiting signs of alcohol abuse or dependence with 7% of the above sample meeting diagnostic criteria for alcohol, marijuana, or hard drug abuse or dependence. Trends in alcohol use reported in the Youth Risk Behavior Survey indicate that binge drinking (five or more drinks on one occasion during the 30 days prior to the survey) has shown little variation over the past several years, ranging from 31.3% in 1991 to 33.4% in 1997 to 31.5% in 1999 (Centers for Disease Control, 2000). Binge drinking continues to be a problem among youth and needs to be targeted specifically. Importantly, studies have found that alcohol use influenced the practice or involvement in a number of other high-risk behaviors. Sexual activity, smoking, and drinking and driving were significantly related to heavy drinking. Another study examining trauma experiences among adolescents found that those who reported alcohol abuse or dependence were 6-12 times more likely to have a history of childhood physical abuse, and 18-21 times more likely to have a sexual abuse history (Clark, Lesnick, Hegedus, 2001). The continued increase in alcohol consumption among teenagers is cause for concern, particularly as it relates to and influences other risk factors and behaviors. Teen Addiction, Recovery and Relapse   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   These three (3) aspects are critical elements of this discussion because they are more closely related to reach other than originally recognized.   Teen addiction has often been linked to the risk factors that will be discussed in the later segments of this paper (Kilpatrick et al. 2000).   Teen addiction is often correlated to exposure to risk factors.   The causal link that has been found is that the risk activities that teens are exposed to often lead to drug addiction and dependency.   Alternatively, those that find themselves in drug related problems are often also found to take part in risk activities. The second element, teen recovery is also connected to all of these factors in that the success of recovery treatment depends highly not solely on the teen’s non-exposure to drugs but also with the withdrawal from all of those risk factors such as drinking, smoking and healthier dating relationships.   Finally, this section will also shed light on the relapse rate which has also been found to be closely related to alcohol and smoking problems.   As found in most studies, continued use of non-drug addictive substances also increases the relapse rate especially among teens.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As previously mentioned, teen addiction is often attributed to many different factors.   The foremost among these factors remain peer pressure, troubled childhood and lack of parental and substitute parental guidance (e.g. teachers).   These are well documented causes of teen drug addiction which will only be briefly discussed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While there are theories that suggest it may not be just one single element that promotes teen drug addiction, it cannot be denied that the aforementioned factors when taken together do increase the chances of teen drug addiction.   Given this fact, once these factors are added with the risk factors such as social acceptance which leads to increased sexual activity, drug addiction not only becomes guaranteed but continued substance abuse well into the late teens is also certified. In the book entitled, â€Å"Care of Drug Users in General Practice: a harm reduction approach†, it has been found that addiction to drugs is not always the primary addictive element and that in certain cases the addiction is to the other benefits derived from drug addiction that individuals find more appealing such as social acceptance and increased sexual activity (Phillips 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The issue of recovery, as discussed in â€Å"Care of Drug Users in General Practice: a harm reduction approach† often cites that recovery is based on the same factors that caused the addiction but to a varying extent (Phillips 2004).   This basically means that in order for one to enter voluntarily, which has been found to have to lowest relapse rate, into drug rehabilitation programs, there is a need for the external aid.   The cause which began the substance abuse must also be willing to aid the individual in the rehabilitation stage.   An example of this would be sexually active teenagers who attempt rehabilitation but fail due to one of the partner’s refusal to enter the same program.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Teens are at a very impressionable stage and in order to be able to reach out to them one must be able to reach out to their peers.   This is easier said than done, however, since the clannish nature of most teenagers makes it almost impossible to be able to get on a more comfortable personal level with any of them (Phillips 2004).   Most drug rehabilitation programs have begun implementing peer outreach programs where the former successful teen patients volunteer to help the centers in reaching out to the troubled youth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Finally, the problem of relapse must also be discussed.   Relapse is often a greater problem than getting the addict to rehabilitation.   The reason for this is that maintaining the dissociation with drugs and the related elements requires constant vigilance without outside intervention (Phillips 2004).   Most of the problems that teen addicts face after rehabilitation lies in breaking away from comfortable and familiar ties who are often still exposed to the drug elements to which the teen seeks to break ties from.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is a lot of literature on this matter which suggests that drug rehabilitation programs should equally pay attention to the â€Å"check out† stage of most recovered addicts.   While there is success in getting the addict to quit, for the time being, success can only be measured in its entirety.   In this dangerous and socially important aspect, partial success does not count as a victory (Phillips 2004).   What truly matters is getting the teen to totally isolate himself or herself from any factor which may bring about a relapse.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to tackle this problem, it is important to maintain peer programs such as the AA and the like that have constant monitors on their members.   There are programs that have already instituted these types of programs but most have failed due to the lack of commitment by most of its members (Phillips 2004).   Teen drug addiction is not an easy problem to admit as most teens often find themselves in denial of their addiction and take it instead as a growing pain that everyone goes through (Phillips 2004).   Yet, as revealed earlier, the teen drug abuse rates reveal a different story.   Therefore, in order to address the problem of drug relapse, most teenagers must be able to realize that the addiction was not just a part of growing up but rather an experience that is avoidable and must not be repeated. Teen Treatment Systems   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This section will briefly tackle the issue on treatment systems such as counseling or outpatient services and its effects on the adolescent population whether it is helpful or only helpful when combined.   At the onset, it must be stated that as a part of the rehabilitation system, the issue on counseling and/or outpatient services is critical.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As previously mentioned in the prior section, many of the treatment systems that have been implemented do not focus solely on counseling alone but also include other treatments such as outpatient services and extracurricular activities (Philips 2004).   Counseling, as discussed in a number of studies, is only effective up to a certain extent.   While generally considered as a more passive approach to treatment, newer and more dynamic systems have also been added to the treatment (Botvin 2005).   It has been found that counseling is only the initial step in teen substance abuse rehabilitation.   It must be complemented by more dynamic systems as teen outreach programs.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The value of an addict for his or her life is greatly increased when seen in the context of aiding the community.   These new treatment systems have been developed specifically to target teens.   The reason for this is that it allows for the effective isolation from the harmful and detrimental substance abuse elements and allows the addict or individual to be â€Å"reintroduced† as a productive member of society and the community (Botvin 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The second step in this process is the outpatient service that is offered.   The problem of relapse is common among teenagers and as such effective outpatient services to monitor the teens is necessary.   The greatest danger comes from not being able to maintain the positive and productive environment for the adolescent.   This is perhaps the single most important step in keeping the teens from relapsing into substance abuse (Botvin 2005). Teen Addiction and Risk Factors As such, it is also relevant to discuss how addiction manifests itself in relation to certain aspects such as risky behavior because certain studies have shown that drug addiction is intensified by these elements as well. Dating Relationships Teens generally begin dating, either singly or in small groups, between 13 and 18 years of age, with a range of variability regarding frequency, level of intimacy, seriousness, and importance of these relationships. An illustration of dating, intimacy, and sexual experiences and expectations is provided by an in-depth survey conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation and YM Magazine, involving 650 boys and girls ages 13-18 years (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation and YM Magazine, 1999). They discovered levels or stages of intimacy that developed by age of the youth; that is, intimacy progressed as the youth developed in age chronologically, not as the relationship progressed in length. Most 13-14-year-old teens (72%) reported that it is typical for dating couples their age to kiss, with 45% reporting that French kissing, petting (15%), and intercourse (4%) are expected. Adolescents 15-16 years of age expected an increased level of sexual activity, with 93% reporting kissing, and slightly higher rates of French kissing (71%), petting (48%), and intercourse (28%) as normative. Couples at this age typically spend more time alone together. Older teens (ages 17-18 years) have significantly more sexual experience, with 57% reporting petting to be typical and slightly more than half (52%) reporting intercourse to be typical of their dating relationships. Just as intimacy becomes more involved and prevalent in older teens relationships, so does the significance of the relationship. Although teens continue to value relationships with parents, siblings, other family members, and nonrelated adults, relationships with dating partners begin to gain in importance. Gender differences emerge in how relationships develop in significance and closeness during the adolescent years. A study of the network of relationships among younger adolescents found that dating partners were ranked 6th out of 7 in terms of support received (i.e., companionship, intimacy, instrumental help, affection, enhancement of worth, nurturance of the other, and reliable alliance). By mid-adolescence, dating partners were tied for second place with mothers and, in college, males rated their dating partner as the most supportive person in their network, while females gave equally high ratings to partners, same sex friends, siblings, and mothers (Furman Buhrmester, 2002). A similar study comparing dating and non-dating adolescents found older adolescents and males interacted more frequently with romantic Clinical Issues in Intervention dating partners, whereas younger adolescents and females divided their social interaction time among several relationships (Laursen Williams, 1997). What is not clearly understood, however, is how these relationships emerge in early adolescence, and how these relationships transform over the course of adolescence. Gender differences in expectations and closeness may lead to conflict and tension in dating relationships, if these expectations are not clearly understood or reciprocated. Patterns for more high-risk youth (e.g., those involved in dropout prevention and alternative school programs) stand in contrast to these normative patterns. Of high-risk youth, 35% report being 13 years or younger at first intercourse, 33% were 14-15 years old, and 13% were 16 years or older (OHara et al., 2003). Obviously, youth with other risk behaviors (such as alcohol abuse or school problems) are more likely to also engage in high-risk sexual behavior. Monitoring dating abuse and violence among adolescents is fairly new. Surveys of high school students report 36%-45% of students experience any form of violence in the relationship as a victim or perpetrator (OKeefe Treister, 2003). Recently, a measure of physical abuse in dating relationships has been added to the Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Intentional physical violence, including being hit, slapped, or physically hurt on purpose by a boyfriend or girlfriend, was reported by 8.8% of youth in the 2005 Youth Risk Behavior survey (YRBSS, 2005). A series of focus group studies with adolescent males and females ages 14-19 years regarding teen dating relationships revealed many disturbing attributions regarding harassment and abuse in dating relationships. Factors that caused violence as reported by the teens were grouped into individual, couple, and social levels (Lavoie, Robitaille, Hebert, 2000). Individual factors attributed to the aggressor included jealousy, the boys need for power, and alcohol and drug use. During focus group discussions, youth identified factors attributed to the victim including provocation by the girl, previous experience with violence, a victim personality type (i.e., one who is easily preyed upon), and a strong need for affiliation. Factors attributed to the couple included communication problems and sadomasochism. There was endorsement for consensual violent sex, meaning that a little force during intimacy was considered acceptable as long as both partners agreed. Although consensual, the youth did regard this as sometimes being problematic because partners have agreed to the violence, but may not be sure when one or the other has then crossed the line. Teens in this study frequently attributed blame for violence in the relationship to the victim. Importantly, physical violence in a dating relationship has different ramifications for males and females. While there is a trend to believe that males and females are equally violent, there is evidence that females perpetrate more violence than males out of self-defense. There are also differences in the severity of violence experienced, as well as the impact it has on the victim (Foshee, 2006). A study of high school dating violence revealed that girls experienced significantly more severe physical violence than boys (Jackson, Cram, Seymour, 2000). Females were more likely to be punched and to be forced into sexual activity, whereas males were more likely to be pinched, slapped, scratched, and kicked. The physical effects of the violence were more severe for females, with 48% reporting that it â€Å"hurt a lot† or caused bruises (29%). Males (56%) more frequently reported that it did not hurt at all. Reaction to the worst incident of violence in the relationship also was assessed. Males most frequently reported that they laughed (54%) in reaction to the situation, while females reported a number of other responses: crying (40%), running away (11%), and fighting back (36%); 12% reported that they obeyed their partner. Sexual assault and forced sexual intercourse also occur at an alarming rate during adolescence (9-10% of first sexual intercourse experiences were forced). Males perpetrate more sexual dating violence than females, and females sustain more sexual violence than males (Foshee, 2006). Sexual Activity among Adolescents While it is easy to track female pregnancy rates, adolescent males are typically not researched or surveyed regarding their histories of fathering pregnancies. A study of urban African-American male youth regarding pregnancy history and other health-risk behaviors indicated that 24.2% reported a pregnancy history. These males were 14 times more likely to report three or more sex partners in the last year, more than five times as likely to report a sexually transmitted disease history, and more than three times more likely to test positive for drugs than males without a pregnancy history. Safe sex practices also seem to be of little concern to these males, as they were 2.5 times as likely to be inconsistent or nonusers of condoms during sexual intercourse (Guagliardo, Huang, DAngelo, 2006). Disturbingly, a study of youth in dropout prevention and alternative school programs assessed for risk of HIV/AIDS prevention found that use of alcohol and drugs and age of sexual initiation were significantly associated with a high risk profile ile for AIDS/HIV (OHara et al., 2003). Males (29%) were more likely than females (14%) to use alcohol and drugs before having sex and were more than likely to have had sex with two or more partners (males, 78%; females, 22%). Early onset of sexual intercourse is cause for concern, particularly as it increases the likelihood of increased numbers of sexual partners and condom nonuse during the adolescent. Increased numbers of sexual intercourse partners has been correlated with risk behaviors such as unintended pregnancy, HIV/AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases. Connections between dating violence and alcohol use were found to be among the strongest predictors for an increased number of sexual intercourse partners for Black and White adolescent males and females (Valois, Oeltmann, Waller, Hussey, 2003). Younger dating youth who have older partners may be at greater risk of experiencing dating violence. Not including cases where physical force was threatened or used at first sexual intercourse, 34% of male partners of 11-12 year old females were five or more years older; 12% of male partners of 13-15 year old females were five or more years older; and 7% of male dating partners of 16-18 year olds were five years or more older (Leitenberg Saltzman, 2000). Although the disparity in age range between the male and female partners seems to decrease as females get older, such disparity has important prevention implications. Information about onset of sexual intercourse is available, but information is scarce about feelings regarding the experience, planning for the event, and discussion regarding birth control or safe sex practices before intercourse has occurred (Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation and YM Magazine, 1999). Females tend to feel more pressure to participate in some form of sexual activity and are more concerned about what friends, peers, and the dating partner think of them. Motivation for initiation of sexual intercourse has not been significantly examined. Predictors for early initiation of sexual intercourse include a belief that they are more mature than their peers, early physical maturity, a tendency to use hard drugs, and a desire for earlier autonomy from parents (Rosenthal, Smith, de Visser, 1999). Research regarding individual risk factors and risk behaviors has been conducted primarily in isolation. Recently, research into how these many behaviors are related has begun to take place. Making the links between these factors and behaviors may have important consideration when designing prevention programs. Making the Links The links between adolescent risk behaviors described above merit careful investigation. While it is understood that these behaviors do not usually occur in isolation, there seems to be no clear understanding of how they operate together, and what the ramifications might be for adolescent dating relationships. The survey data presented earlier shows that some adolescents begin drinking at an early age, and many begin to experience sexual intercourse at an early age. Undoubtedly, there are serious health ramifications to these issues (i.e., potential for pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, alcohol and other drug dependence, and increased aggression). Typically, researchers have considered these ramifications in the context of the individual, a lot depends on the occurrence of these behaviors in peer and dating relationships, and the possible impact on individuals and relationships. Linking Alcohol and Sexual Activity A report written by the Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse used data from two prominent surveys in the United States: the 1997 Youth Risk Behavior Survey; and the 1995 National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, regarding adolescent risk behaviors to develop a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the connections among alcohol, drug use, and all aspects of sexual activity and violence (National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999). Again, the links among dating violence and alcohol and sex are not explicit. However, significant findings from this report reveal that teens who use alcohol and drugs are more likely to have sexual intercourse, initiate sexual intercourse at an earlier age, have multiple sex partners, and be at greater risk for sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancy. Early onset of drug use and number of years of sexual intercourse has been found to be associated with increased numbers of sex partners. In addition, students with more partners are more likely to be heavier drug users. The Kaiser Family Foundation study found that almost two in ten (17%) teens, aged 13-18, who have had an intimate encounter, admit having done something sexual while under the influence of drugs or alcohol that they otherwise might not have done. One in three (32%) girls, 17-18 years of age, have had this experience. Linking Alcohol and Intimate Violence The links between alcohol use and marital aggression have been documented, but the same attention has not been shown to adolescent dating relationships. Only recently have questions regarding dating violence been added to the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (Centers for Disease Control, 2000). Substance abuse is frequently linked with sexual violence. Alcohol has been named the primary culprit for date rape on college campuses (National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1999). A study of college men and women found that 78% of undergraduate women experienced sexual aggression, and 57% of men reported being sexually aggressive. Dates that included sexual aggression were more likely to include heavy drinking or drug use, in comparison to the last date that did not include sexual aggression. Among high school students, experiencing dating violence has been identified as a salient risk factor for females for using alcohol or street drugs, and increases the odds 20-fold for alcohol and drug use (Wekerle, Hawkins, Wolfe, 2001). There is a move toward establishing a better understanding of the significance and links among adolescent risk behaviors. With this understanding comes a need to develop new prevention programs that deal with these risk behaviors in a broader sense, rather than in isolation. Adolescent Risk Behavior and Drug Prevention Programs Prevention programs developed over the past decade have been targeted specifically at adolescents for a number of risk behaviors: dating violence, alcohol abuse, drug abuse, pregnancy prevention, safe sex programs, and prevention of sexually transmitted diseases, to name a few. Literature reviews and program evaluation studies point to the conclusion that programs may be successful at providing information and delaying onset of the risk activity, but long-term prevention of the focused risk behavior is seldom achieved. Evaluation of prevention programs in all of these areas has been limited due to methodological problems, such as inadequate standardized measures, ambiguity of terms (e.g., defining dating relationships), lack of multiple informants and control groups, lack of trained facilitators, and long-term follow-up issues. Some programs are developed for universal prevention, while others are targeted at groups considered to be at greater risk based on presence of known risk factors. Undoubtedly, good prevention programs are derived from theory, input from youth, and practice. There are several theories that have contributed to the creation of prevention programs for dating violence, substance abuse, and pregnancy or safe sex education. Social learning theory postulates that youth are vulnerable as a result of the social environment in which they are raised. Negative family, peer, and community influences will contribute to risk for adapting to negative behaviors. Problem behavior theory relies on the belief that some youth may have a natural tendency for deviance or nonconformity and, therefore, may be more likely to engage in problem behaviors. Adolescents may engage in alcohol consumption or early onset of sexual intercourse because they perceive it as a means to achieve a goal, that is, peer acceptance, or to cope with boredom, unhappiness, anxiety, or rejection (Botvin Botvin, 2002) Theory and model testing of problem behaviors in a recent study of early adolescents found support for a model that included specific factors related to aggression, drug use, and delinquent behaviors, and a higher order problem behavior factor (Farrell, Kung, White, Valois, 2006). Life-skills training programs that have been developed based on problem behavior theory are built on the philosophy that targeting the underlying determinants (such as personal and social competence skills) will affect the factors that cause the risk behavior. Similarly, social bonding theory links healthy attachments to family and school as factors that protect youth from deviant behavior; unhealthy attachments are regarded as risk factors (Farrell, Kung, White, Valois, 2006). Instead of focusing on preventing something negative from happening to youth, some recent programs emphasize youth involvement and empowerment, which shifts the focus to promoting positive youth development. In this approach, youth are considered as assets and resources rather than problems or â€Å"targets.† Prevention programs, such as the Youth Relationships Program have expanded the role of theory to include youth empowerment as a central theme in educating youth about positive, healthy relationships program and the avoidance of violence and abuse. Several factors have been identified as being essential components of prevention programs among adolescents, regardless of the topic. The location of the program is often debated as to whether schools or other community service agencies are better. In the case of sexuality and education prevention programs, there is no question that these programs should be offered in schools; however, what programs should be taught remain a concern (Kirby Coyle, 1997). Some groups favor teaching abstinence until marriage only, while others favor education regarding contraception and sexuality. Similarly, dating violence prevention programs have been offered in schools and in community service agencies with varying degrees of success. These programs may be most effective when embedded in a declared school context of â€Å"zero tolerance† for any type of school violence. The advantages of school-based programs include access to youth, space, and time, and staffing support. The disadvantages include concerns that truant youth, who may need the program most, are not available in the schools; disclosures of abuse in the classroom may not be handled well in a large classroom situation; a large group may not be a safe place to discuss personal beliefs and attitudes; and learning may be limited to only the school context of the individuals life. These concerns notwithstanding, the main advantage of community-based programs has been the development of community partnerships. Although the advantages may not be inherently evident in the results of the prevention program itself (i.e., preventing something bad is hard to prove), such programs appear to reduce duplication of services, increase cooperation and efficiency among service providers, and help integrate services into the community. In turn, communities that have a â€Å"face†-a reputation for cooperative and active prevention-have significantly reduced the perceived and actual levels of violence, even in the poorest neighborhoods (Sampson Morenoff, 1997). Advocates of prevention programs favor sustained, long-term efforts in education to make prevention successful. Programs should be on-going from kindergarten to the final year of high school, and should be especially intensive just prior to the age of initiation of substance use or similar risk behaviors. Unfortunately, it seems that this does not transfer readily into practice. In the case of sexuality education in Canada, a report by the Council of Ministers of Education indicates that curriculum time in schools available for sexuality education has been reduced as health education becomes combined with physical and career education. Fewer public health nurses in schools also severely reduced the quality and availability of preventive sexual health education services to adolescents (Council of Ministers of Education of Canada, 1999). Pregnancy prevention and sexuality education programs, while deemed extremely important in reducing teen pregnancy rates and incidence of sexually transmitted disease, are critically received by a number of groups and agencies when being implemented in communities. Differing views regarding how to handle this issue conflict with effective program implementation. For example, some religious and moral beliefs dictate that youth should remain abstinent during adolescence, that parents are responsible for protecting their children from negative influences, and that education will positively influence knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs. Programs that focus on abstinence or pregnancy prevention have typically been delivered to females only. While females need to take responsibility for their choices and actions, males also need to be educated about the same issues in order to make responsible choices as well. Males who have unprotected sex are also at risk of becoming fathers and contracting sexually transmitted diseases (Pierre, Shrier, Emans, DuRant, 2006). Substance abuse prevention programs have typically been school-based and education focused (Botvin Botvin, 2002). Evaluations of earlier programs have consistently found them to be ineffective. One school-based intervention was able to show significant reductions in drug use enduring for six years after implementation of the program. The success of this program was attributed to teaching a combination of resistance and social competence skills, the proper implementation of the program, and sufficient length for program with at least two years of booster implementations (Botvin, Schinke, Epstein, Diaz, Borvin, 2005). The Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (Brounstein Zweig, 2000) has identified six prevention strategies that can be used in combination to develop prevention programs that focus on risk and protective factors for substance abuse, including: information dis semination, prevention education, alternatives, problem identification and referral, community-based process, and environmental approaches. The Center for Substance Abuse Prevention has recently completed an analysis of substance abuse prevention programs that have been evaluated. Rigorous statistical criteria for evaluation were adopted, resulting in the definition of eight model programs which have adopted a combination of these prevention strategies, representing a number of age groups, as well as universal, selective, and indicated prevention for children and youth (Brounstein Zweig, 2000). Of all these programs, only one included information regarding sex or health education, and one provided information and skills for violence and gang prevention and conflict resolution. Although these programs were successful in reducing risk factors and increasing protective factors, they did not demonstrate alcohol and drug use prevention. Unfortunately, there are no existing programs that address alcohol and dating violence prevention together. Although some alcohol abuse prevention programs do discuss or deal with aggression, it is usually in the context of community violence not intimate interpersonal violence. A review of prevention programs that focus on teenage sexual risk behavior indicated that they also were narrowly focused to one aspect of this behavior, that is, abstinence only, contraception programs, and HIV/AIDS awareness programs (Kirby Coyle, 2007). It is time to begin linking these risk behaviors together in universal and targeted prevention efforts, focusing on the intimate and personal effects of these risk behaviors on teenage dating relationships. Adolescence provides an opportunity to enter into discussions regarding the impact, consequence, and prevalence of these behaviors and explore the perceived benefits and drawbacks of these risk behaviors. Prevention programs can offer an opportunity for youth and adults to engage in discussions regarding the motivators for initiating these behaviors and relevant information regarding short term effects. Prevention of specific risk behaviors requires community coordination and varied input. Parents, teachers, school officials, health care workers, and community workers need to be part of strategies to prevent risk behaviors. Community organizations and resources have learned to work collaboratively on a number of issues, including violence, alcohol, drug use, and the prevention of pregnancy. Collaboration and coordination helps to reduce costs and improve efficiency as well as build community. The growing research provides evidence that youth may possess a number of concurrent risk factors for any of the behaviors that are outlined in this chapter. There is overlap among the risk factors and behaviors and, therefore, prevention programs need to better consider the clustering of these components and develop programs that will address a number of these issues simultaneously (Saner Ellickson, 2006). However, intervention and prevention programs have been weak in helping youth to manage risk and anticipate risky situations in advance. Because all risks cannot be eliminated, youth need to learn how to manage them. Prevention programs that make youth aware of how they may be at increased risk in certain situations and provide skills to deal with or avoid the situation may be most promising. References Botvin, G.J. Botvin, E.M. (2002). Adolescent tobacco, alcohol, and drug abuse: Prevention strategies, empirical findings, and assessment issues. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics,13(4) 290-301. Botvin, G.J., Schinke, S., Orlandi, M.A. (2005). School-based health promotion: Substance abuse and sexual behavior. Applied Preventive Psychology,4, 167-184. Brounstein, P.J., Zweig, J.M. (2000). Understanding substance abuse prevention. Toward the 21st century: A primer on effective programs. Washington, DC: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Centers for Disease Control. (June 9, 2000) Youth risk behavior surveillance-United States 1999. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 49, 1-96. Clark, D.B., Lesnick, L., Hegedus, A.M. (1997). Traumas and other life events in adolescents with alcohol use and dependence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry,36(12), 1744-1751. Council of Ministers of Education of Canada. (1999). Schools, public health, sexuality and HIV: A status report. Toronto: Author. Dishion, T.J., Capaldi, D., Spracklen, K.M., Li, F. (2005). Peer ecology of male adolescent drug use. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 803-824. Farrell, A.D., Kung, E.M., White, K.S., Valois, R.F. (2006). The structure of selfreported aggression, drug use and delinquent behaviors during early adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29(2), 282-292. Foshee, V.A. (2006). Gender differences in adolescent dating abuse prevalence, types and injuries. Health Education Research,11(3), 275-286. Furman, W., Buhrmester, D. (1992). Age and sex in perceptions of networks of personal relationships. Child Development, 63, 103-115. Guagliardo, M.F., Huang, Z., DAngelo, L.J. (1999). Fathering Pregnancies: Marking health-risk behaviors in urban adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 24, 10-15. Jackson, S.M., Cram, F., Seymour, F.W. (2000). Violence and sexual coercion in high school students dating relationships. Journal of Family Violence, 15, 23-26. Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation and YM Magazine. (1999). 1998 National Survey of Teens: Teens talk about dating, intimacy, and their sexual experiences. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation. Kilpatrick, D.G., Acierno, R., Saunders, B., Resnick, H.S., Best, C.L. (2000). Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: Data from a national sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(1), 19-30. Kirby, D., Coyle, K. (2007). School-based programs to reduce sexual risk-taking behavior. Children and Youth Services Review,19(5/6), 415-436. Laursen, B., Williams, V. (1997). Perceptions of interdependence and closeness in family and peer relationships among adolescents with and without romantic partners. New Directions for Child Development, 78, 3-20. Lavoie, F., Robitaille, L., Hebert, M. (2000). Teen dating relationships and aggression. Violence against Women,6(1), 6-36. Leitenberg, H., Saltzman, H. (2000). A statewide survey of age at first intercourse for adolescent females and age of their male partners: Relation to other risk behaviors and statutory rape implications. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 29, 203-215. National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse. (1999). Dangerous liaisons: Substance abuse and sex. New York: Author. OHara, P., Parris, D., Fichtner, R.R., Oster, R. (2003). Influence of alcohol and drug use on AIDS risk behavior among youth in dropout prevention. Journal of Drug Education, 28(2) 159-168. OKeefe, M. (2003). Factors mediating the link between witnessing interparental violence and dating violence. Journal of Family Violence,13(1), 39-57. Pierre, N., Shrier, L.A., Emans, S.J., DuRant, R.H. (2006). Adolescent males involved in pregnancy: Associations of forced sexual contact and risk behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health,23(6), 364-369. Rosenthal, D.A., Smith, A.M., de Visser, R. (1999). Personal and social factors influencing age at first sexual intercourse. Archives of Sexual Behavior,28(4), 319-333. Saner, H., Ellickson, P. (2006). Concurrent risk factors for adolescent violence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 19, 94-103. Sampson, R.J., Morenoff, J. (1997). Ecological perspectives on the neighborhood context of urban poverty: Past and present. In J. Brooks-Gunn, G.J. Duncan, J.L. Aber (Eds.), Neighborhood poverty: Vol. 2. Policy implications in studying neighborhoods (pp.1-22). New York: Russell Sage Foundation. Valois, R.F., Oeltmann, J.E., Waller, J., Hussey, J.R. (203). Relationship between number of sexual intercourse partners and selected health risk behaviors among public high school adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 25(5), 328-335. Wekerle, C., Hawkins, D.L., Wolfe, D.A. (2001). Adolescent substance use: The contribution of child maltreatment and violence in teen partnerships. Development and Psychopathology, 34, 571-586. YRBSS: Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (2005). Retrieved October 27th from:   http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5505a1.htm

Adapting the Law to the Online Environment Essay Example for Free

Adapting the Law to the Online Environment Essay Formulating unique conception of the Web in â€Å"Weaving the Web† Berners-Lee emphasized that the intention was to create a system with â€Å"one fundamental property: it had to be completely decentralized.† In the vision of Berners-Lee: â€Å"That would be the only way a new person   somewhere could start to use it [the Web] without asking for access from anyone else†[1]. In the initial years of the Web’s functioning, Berner-Lee’s ideal of a highly decentralized universal system has been shared by tens of millions of people around the world who have appreciated and marveled at an invention that makes it unexpectedly easy for anyone with a computer to connect with anyone else with a computer, anywhere in the world, and to store and send information almost at will. But the Internet and the Web have also moved to the center of attention for governments, business leaders, lawyers and judges, police forces and military establishments, and anyone else dependent on the rule of law and authority structures in modern society. This is a result of the ability and tendency of Internet users to simply skirt or leap over many of the rules and institutions designed to maintain order in the pre- Internet world. Previously designed rules and legal structures enacted for slower-paced, relatively public tangible transactions in a world rimmed everywhere with borders (local, provincial, national) suddenly were challenged as never before when the Internet made it physically conceivable to carry out transactions of almost any kind in a manner simultaneously immediate, anonymous, inexpensive, and seemingly borderless. However, the process of certain democratization, overcriminalization and simply lazier-affair went beyond predictable limits – internet identity theft, credit card fraud, controversies with gambling and online porn reveal significant need to adapt the law to online environment, to analyze the specifics of cyber crimes and to create effective regulatory norms. Traditional Crime and Cyber Crime: Defining Boundaries From the primary perspective, the Internet imitates and, in most cases, runs parallel to what is often happening in normal life, therefore, it is no wonder that the law had to take account of this new parallel of real life. Hence the frequent appeals for â€Å"cyberlaw† or â€Å"cyberspace law.† Simultaneously, the imitation of life by the Internet does not completely transcend existing forms of activities in their entirety. Thus while electronic forms of information are the hallmark of the Internet and tend to undermine tangible media, or even render them obsolete, prior forms of information may coexist alongside them, albeit uneasily and suffering permanent corrosion. In so far as it is not possible to divine the extent to which the Net will generate parallel or independent forms of activity, the development of the appropriate law cannot be predictable. One has to determine in each specific sphere of activity how far the parallels go and how big or small the change over the normal may have been before working out the legal response. Consequently, the lack of time or resources cannot be the main reasons for the non-development of Internet law, as Edwards and Waelde suggest[2], although they recognize, somewhat indirectly that the Internet is still developing and so must the Internet law. Edwards and Waelde view â€Å"Internet Law† as being a result of (the usual) adaptation process that the law undergoes to catch up with new technological phenomena. They regard Internet Law as a necessity, contrary to the â€Å"core pragmatic† perception of those they refer to as looking upon the Internet as law-free.[3] And although the regulation of Internet content, transactions and activities seems to be logical and self-evident, the problems start appearing from the very definition of cyber crime. Black’s Law Dictionary defines a â€Å"crime† as a â€Å"social harm that the law makes punishable; the breach of a legal duty treated as the subject-matter of a criminal proceeding.†[4] Anglo-American crim ­inal law has for centuries possessed a set of definitions of â€Å"crimes† that encompass the varied categories of social harms humans can inflict on one another, for instance homicide, rape, robbery, arson, vandalism, fraud, child abuse, etc. According to Susan Brenner, crimi ­nal law does not typically differentiate offenses based upon the instrumentalities that are used in their com ­mission; we generally do not, for example, divide homi ­cide into â€Å"murder by gun,† â€Å"murder by poison,† â€Å"mur ­der by strangulation† and so on.[5] As Brenner points out, criminal law does treat the use of certain instrumentalities as â€Å"aggravat ­ing factors,† the use of which can result in an enhanced sentence upon conviction; this is how criminal law gen ­erally deals with using a firearm or other dangerous in ­strumentality in the commission of a crime.[6] This approach could, perhaps, have been taken with regard to cyber crime; we could simply define hacking as a type of trespass, analogous to real-world trespass. The â€Å"crime† of real-world trespass is gaining access to a physical space a building or a parcel of land without authorization. We could have pursued hacking in an analogous fashion, perhaps prosecuting it as tres ­pass and then characterizing the use of computer tech ­nology as an aggravating factor.[7] However, that is not the approach the law has taken and is tak ­ing to the use of computer technology to inflict social harms. What is emerging is a division between tradi ­tional crimes (trespass, burglary, theft, stalking, etc.) and cyber crimes. The latter encompass the use of com ­puter technology to commit either (a) social harms that have already been identified and outlawed generically (trespass, burglary, theft, stalking, etc.) or (b) new types of social harm that do not fall into traditional â€Å"crime† categories. It is necessary to adopt cyber crime-specific laws for the first category of conduct because, as Brennan’s hacking-trespass example illustrates, computer tech ­nology can be used to commit social harms in ways that do not fit comfortably into our existing offense categories. Another Brennan’s example of a denial of service attack[8] simply eludes conventional crimi ­nal law: it is not theft; it is not extortion; it is not black ­mail; it is not vandalism or trespassing or any other â€Å"crime† that has so far been defined. We must, therefore, define new â€Å"cyber crimes† to encompass denial of service attacks and other â€Å"new† varieties of criminal activity. In conceptualizing the varieties of cyber crime, it is helpful to divide them into three categories offered by Marc Goodman: crimes in which the computer is the target of the criminal ac ­tivity, crimes in which the computer is a tool used to commit the crime, and crimes in which the use of the computer is an incidental aspect of the commission of the crime.[9] When a computer is the target of criminal activity, the perpetrator attacks an innocent user’s computer or computer system either by gaining unlawful access to it or by bombarding it from outside. Cybercrimes that fall into this category include simple hacking (gaining access to a computer system or part of a computer system without autho ­rization) and aggravated hacking (gaining access to a computer system or part of a computer system without authorization for the purpose of committing a crime such as copying or altering information in the system). The target cybercrimes also include denial of service attacks and the dissemination of viruses, worms and other types of malware. The cyber crimes in this cate ­gory tend to be â€Å"new† crimes and therefore generally require new legislation. A computer or computer system can also be the in ­strument that is used to commit what is essentially a traditional crime. Cybercrimes in which a computer is the tool used to carry out criminal activity include online fraud, theft, embezzlement, stalking and harass ­ment, forgery, obstruction of justice and the creation or dissemination of child pornography. These are conven ­tional crimes, but it may be difficult to prosecute online versions of these crimes using existing substantive law; a jurisdiction’s theft statute may not, for example, en ­compass a â€Å"theft† of intangible property when the theft consists of copying the property, instead of appropri ­ating it entirely. In State v. Schwartz, Oregon State of Appeal held that â€Å"†¦by copying the passwords, defendant stripped them of their value.†[10] Jurisdictions may therefore find it necessary to amend their existing substantive criminal law to ensure that it can be used against these cy ber crime variants of tradi ­tional crimes. The last category consists of cyber crimes in which the use of a computer or computer system is incidental to the commission of the crime. This category includes, for example, instances in which a murderer uses a com ­puter to plan a murder or lure the victim to the murder scene; it can also include a blackmailer’s using a com ­puter to write extortion letters to his victim or a drug dealer’s using a computer to monitor his sales, inventory and profits. Here, the computer is merely a source of evidence and new substantive criminal legislation is generally not needed. The cases in this category can, however, require new law to resolve procedural issues such as the processes used in gathering evidence of cyber crimes. The basic federal cyber crime provision is 18 U.S. Code  § 1030; among other things, it criminalizes hacking, cracking, computer fraud and the dissemination of viruses, worms and other types of malware. The statute accomplishes this by directing its prohi ­bitions at conduct that targets a â€Å"protected computer† and then defining â€Å"protected computer† as a computer encompassed by federal jurisdiction.[11] Section 1030 defined a â€Å"protected computer† as either (a) a computer used exclusively by a financial institution or the federal government or used nonexclusively by a financial institution or the federal govern ­ment if the conduct constituting the crime affects its use by the financial institution or federal government; or (b) a computer used in interstate or foreign commerce or communication.[12] The notion of basing the statute’s prohibitions on conduct directed at a â€Å"protected computer† was introduced when  § 1030 was a mended in 1996; until then, it criminalized con ­duct that was directed at â€Å"federal interest computers,† i.e., computers used by the federal government or lo ­cated in more than one state.[13] The 1996 amendment broadened  § 1030’s reach; it now encompasses conduct directed at any computer con ­nected to the Internet. In 2001, the Patriot Act amended  § 1030 to make it clear that the statute can be used to prosecute criminal conduct which occurred outside the United States, a position the Department of Justice had long taken, for instance in case United States v. Ivanov. The Patriot Act expanded the definition of a protected computer to include com ­puters used in interstate or foreign commerce that are located outside the United States if they are â€Å"used in a manner that affects interstate or foreign commerce or communication of the United States.†[14] Problematic Aspects: Copyright, Child Pornography, Identity Fraud in Internet In order to address the problems in regulation of online environment more effectively, this paper aims to focus on several most problematic aspects of the issue – copyright violations, child pornography and identity theft or credit card fraud. Defined by Culberg, copyright is â€Å"a legal device giving the author (or holder of the copy ­right) the exclusive right to control the reproduction of his or her intellectual creation† for a specific period of time.[15] Copyright law in the United States derives from the U.S. Constitution and is therefore exclusively federal; states do not have the authority to legislate in this area.[16] Defenses to a charge of criminal copyright infringe ­ment are, first, that the offense cannot be prosecuted be ­cause the five year statute of limitations has run.[17] Other defenses are the â€Å"first sale† doctrine and an argument that the defendant did not act â€Å"will ­fully.† The first sale doctrine lets one who purchased a copyrighted work freely distribute the copy she bought.[18] Under the doctrine, however, the purchaser can only distribute the copy she bought; she cannot copy the purchased item and distribute the copies.[19] Since most computer software is distributed through licensing agreements, the first sale doctrine typically does not apply when someone is charged with software piracy.[20] With regard to the claim that a defendant did not act â€Å"willfully,† there is some ambiguity as what is required to show â€Å"willfulness.† Courts disagree as to whether it requires an â€Å"intent to copy or intent to infringe.†[21] The newest weapon in the federal arsenal of copy ­right statutes is the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, which added two sections to title 17 of the U.S. Code. Section 1201 makes it unlawful to circumvent measures used to protect copyrighted works, while  § 1202 makes it unlawful to tamper with copyright management in ­formation. Another new section, 17 U.S. Code  § 1204, creates criminal penalties for violating either sections 1201 or 1202 of the DMCA. The first criminal prosecu ­tion under the DMCA was filed in 2001 against Dmitry Sklyarov, a Russian citizen, and his employer, Elcom ­soft, Ltd.[22] They were charged with violating 17 U.S. Code  § 1201(b) (l) (A), by trafficking in technology designed to circumvent the rights of a copyright owner, and with violating 17 U.S. Code  § 1201(b) (l) (C), by trafficking in technol ­ogy marketed for use in circumventing technology that protects the rights of a copyright owner. Another area that is a high priority in federal com ­puter crime prosecutions is child pornography. To un ­derstand the current state of the law outlawing child pornography, it is necessary to understand the First Amendment, which states, in part, that Congress is to make â€Å"no law abridging the freedom of speech.† The U.S. Supreme Court has interpreted this part of the First Amendment as prohibiting the criminalization of any but a very few limited categories of speech: â€Å"[T]he First Amendment bars the government from dictating what we see or read or speak or hear. The freedom of speech has its limits; it does not embrace certain cat ­egories of speech, including defamation, incitement, obscenity, and pornography produced with real chil ­dren.†[23] From the critical as well statistical perspective, child pornography appears a relatively recent addi ­tion to the list. However, the rise of com ­puter technology raised concerns about â€Å"virtual† child pornography, i.e., pornography created using morphed or other artificial images of children, and in 1996 Congress adopted the Child Pornography Prevention Act, codified as 18 U.S. Code  § 2251. This Act extended the prohibitions on manufacturing, possess ­ing and distributing child pornography to encompass pornography that featured not only â€Å"real† children but what â€Å"appeared† to be a real child.[24] In 2001, a coalition of free speech advocates challenged these provisions of the federal child pornography statutes; they argued that because no â€Å"real† children are harmed in the creation of â€Å"virtual† child pornography, it does not fall under a category of speech that cannot constitutionally be criminalized.[25] When the case was before the Supreme Court, the Department of Justice argued that virtual child pornography can be criminalized because (a) pedophiles use it to seduce children into sexual acts and (b) it stimulates pedophiles into molesting chil ­dren.[26] The Supreme Court rejected these arguments and held that the prohibition of virtual child pornogra ­phy violated the First Amendment, so the statutory provisions at issue were unconstitutional and unenforce ­able.

Juliet Mitchells Application Of Psychoanalytic Theory English Literature Essay

Juliet Mitchells Application Of Psychoanalytic Theory English Literature Essay This piece will examine Mitchells essay, by critically analyzing the feminine narrative in psychoanalysis influenced by the Bakhtinian concept of the carnival, applying the hysteric to women in the early novel, the application of the symbolic in defining an alternative universe, and briefly discussing Wuthering Heights. Firstly, Mitchells foremost point is that on feminine narrative in psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is the practice of investigating the way ones mind works, and then using it as a method of treatment to cure various psychological or emotional ailments. The patient recounts certain incidents affecting their psyche. The psychoanalyst is then able to offer a solution to the incident. Through analysis of incidents affecting the patient, the psychoanalyst applies the respective theory and, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦intrudes, disrupts, offers the anarchic carnival back into that historyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Ibid, 426) The carnival referred to here is that of the Bakhtinian notion of deception. Mikhail Bakhtin states that in every level of society, deception is at play where there are multiple levels of power and resistance at work. These forces of deception are what allow people in a society to, put on masks and play certain roles.  [1]  Thus, because of this deceptive nature of communication, any form of action in society is never constant, always being in a state of flux. Mitchell mentions this flux in her statement where she says, What can you do but disrupt a history, and re-create it as anotherà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦?(Ibid, pg. 426) What Mitchell means here is that there is already an alteration of events, through multiple retellings of ones history. However, when Bakhtins carnivalesque element is put into play, the history of the patient is not only replaced with an alternate one, but also that there is no single correct form of history present. With the elements involving a patients history being always in a state of flux, the disruption and creation of multiple histories is imminent. Now if one adds the element of femininity, the issue becomes even more complex. If there is a disruption of history at play, what happens to a woman speaking about her issues, in a phallocentric setting? Mitchell is concerned about the effect that a male-oriented language has on a female subject. If there is already so much disruption in the shaping of ones history, then for a woman it becomes a momentous task to express herself freely in a society that has been shaped according to the norms of men. Also, if the woman subject is being studied by a woman analyst, the analysis becomes even more questionable. Both women have been bred in a society ad hering to the rules of the male. This means, that the method of communication and also of expression then strictly falls into the realm of the male. A woman attempting to understand her own history is thwarted by the loss of true communication in the feminine sense. Secondly, Mitchell explains the plight of a woman attempting to create her own history, by looking into the involvement of women in the early period of the novel. Here as well, women were attempting to carve a niche into an ultimately male dominated realm. This was quite successfully done with the advent of the novel during the seventeenth century, where a vast majority of the authors were women. The introduction of women writers was further accentuated by the very essence of their actions. It was radical enough that women were beginning to express themselves, but it was another thing altogether that they were doing this through the medium of writing. In doing so, they were successfully creating, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦what critics today call the subject in process. (Ibid, 426) Thus, Mitchell explains that in order for women to establish a history, they were doing so by expressing during a state of flux. Here something akin to psychoanalytic practice is at work, where the subject is consciou sly able to re-create a history of herself. According to Mitchell, in the midst of a rising bourgeoisie wrought under the clutches of capitalism, a womans life was constrained to, Domesticity, personal relations (Ibid, 426) One facet of a womans history is preset. But, there is a conscious endeavour to write another form of history; this time it is written from the perspective of the woman. This is not a form of history replicated in the midst of a therapy session in a psychoanalysts office. Here the woman subject is in control of shaping her own history. As Mitchell further illustrates, The novel is that creation by the woman of the woman or by the subject who in the process of becoming womanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. (Ibid, 426) The subject, being the woman, is able to understand the numerous difficulties of the subject of her work which is also the woman, therefore successfully being able to express her concerns. By expressing oneself during a transitional time-frame, in this case during the creation of the bourgeois class, the woman is defining her qualities, her abilities and her boundaries, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦where women are, why women have to write the novel, the story of their own domesticity, the story of their own seclusion within the homeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(Ibid, 426) In doing so, the woman is classifying herself within a given domain, but she is doing so based on the constraints imposed on her by the patriarchal element, thus the Bakhtinian concept of deception. The woman is expressing, but with a mask of social hindrance, further limiting the effectiveness of her message. This is further proved by Mitchells discussion of the discourse of the hysteric. The phenomenon of the hysteric is where the woman accepts and rejects the organization of sexuality under a patriarchal realm. As Mitchell further clarifies, there does not exist, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a thing as female writing, a womans voice. There is the hysterics voice which is the womans masculine languageà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Ibid, 426) Again, here the Bakhtinian ideology is at work. The woman knows that she must talk in a masculine voice, thus the woman consciously constructs her argument within the framework of a phallocentric world. Thus, there is a deceptive nature to her presentation, but it is all the more necessary in gaining a patriarchal audience that is willing to listen. In addition to this, Mitchell further clarifies the hysteric using the moment of the symbolic. The moment of the symbolic according to the Lacanian school of thought is, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦where sexuality is constructed as meaningà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦what was not symbolized, becomes organizedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Ibid, pg. 428) Before a child is made aware of the sexual hierarchy in a patriarchal setting, the atmosphere is that of the carnival. Moreover, before the child is aware of a phallic presence, it is only concerned with the presence of the mother. The mother is a source of nourishment and satisfaction and the child sees no other. The child is free of notions of gender definitions and borders for the respective sexes. This is known as the pre-Oedipal, where between the duration of three to five years, there are libidinal and ego development.  [2]  Freud simply states that the transitioning period is when the child is aware of the male member, At the point in which the phallus is found to be missing in the mother, masculinity is set up as the normà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Ibid, 428) Further defined in the Lacanian model, the child is made aware of a phallic presence that is dominating, and also is made aware of the further responsibilities of the mother that are not just limited to the child, but also to the dominant male figure in the family. According to Lacan, the father figure is introduced in a symbolic sense through the medium of language, where communication and expression is that of a phallocentric nature. Having made aware of two poles of sexuality, the carnival is replaced by the point of organization. At this point, because the child is also increasingly acquiring the ability to communicate, it inevitably takes on the essence of a phallocentric means of communication. Now, one has to be careful in discerning the role that a woman plays in this largely patriarchal construct. Mitchell states that one cannot have the oedipal, without the pre-oedipal, where the former represents an ordered sexual hierarchy and the latter represents a space without any frontiers and constraints, i.e. carnival. These two concepts are complementary of each other, because without one the other cannot function. It is only possible for the child to realize gender constraints, having experienced a state of the pre-Oedipal. Likewise, it is only possible for a woman to yearn for the carnival, having been constrained to the domain of the church and all the constricting forces at work that accompany this controlling body. Therefore, Mitchell claims that one cannot yearn for a pre-Oedipal, carnivalesque setting in present society, because the carnival and the church are already deeply ingrained in the conscious of every individual. She further explains that, You cannot choose the imaginary, the semiotic, the carnival as an alternative to the symbolicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(Ibid, 428) A feminist who wants to have her body of work accepted in the symbolic, and organized structure, cannot give an alternative of a society lacking social constraints. She further elaborates that since feminism has been defined in a phallocentric setting, the means to reach an alternative symbolic universe is by working within the given space that the pre-Oedipal and the Oedipal share. This is parallel to her discussion of the female novelist and her need to be hysteric in order to gain acceptance. Mitchell illustrates an effective alternative symbolic universe, by using the example of Emily Brontes Wuthering Heights. The novel is clearly a critique of the symbolic, but is far more effective because it works within a male-oriented language. Bronte was published under a male pseudonym, which gave her work an even better stronghold in the reading male populace. Bronte is able to criticize the clichà ©d romantic gentleman Lockwood possessing characteristics of a fierce exterior and heart of gold, as being, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦a foppish gentlemanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦who think he loves all the things the romantic gentleman is supposed toà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Ibid, 429) Because she is male, she is not outright rejected for her portrayal. Furthermore, the story of Catherine has a hysteric tone to it. Catherine loves Heathcliff, but cannot take pleasure from it, having already been imposed of the patriarchal constraint on her. Heathcliff is introduced by the father as a sibling to her, and is therefore a forbidden fruit. The Oedipal is at play here where clear cut gender definitions have been drawn. Continuing in the patriarchal tradition, Catherine marries Edgar Linton, Edgar provides an illusion of complimentarity. (Ibid, 429) However, holding true to the hysteric tradition, in the end Bronte rejects this relationship by killing Catherine. Here Brontes ability to question the patriarch is the strongest. By deliberately killing Catherine, Bronte asks if whether the only way a woman can acquire her needs is by simply ceasing to exist. She doesnt have a choice but either to follow, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the hysterics ambiguous choice into a femininity which doesnt workà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (Ibid, 429), this pertains to Catherine mar rying someone not of her choice. The other option is to finally be united with Heathcliff, after suffering death, which is very much an ineffective state. In conclusion, Mitchells essay effectively brings together her four primary concerns: literature, gender politics, psychoanalysis and feminism. In doing so she is successfully able to draw parallels between the limited ability of a woman under a patriarchal construct to the complex machinations of a pre and post Oedipal affected society. In order to encompass a wholesome argument, instead of a radical feminine approach, Mitchell suggests an alternative symbolic universe, where while simultaneously working within the borders of a phallocentric society, a woman is still able to express her femininity.